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Northern Star (1837-1852), 9th August 1845, Edition 3 of 4, Page 7, ITALY, AUSTRIA, AND THE TOPE. so. m. Pre...

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      -August %¦ 1845. The Northern Star. L.

      -August % ¦ 1845 . THE _NORTHERN STAR . L .

      Fornix $Tobemen(&

      _fornix $ _tobemen _(&

      " And T Ttill War, At Least In Words, (A...

      " And _t _ttill war , at least in words , ( And— -should my chance so happen—de _^ _ib _) , With all who war with Thought !" " I think I _lif-ar a little -bird , who sings The people byaud by _vUl be tlie stronger , _"—Btaos

      Italy, Austria, And The Tope. So. M. Pre...

      ITALY , AUSTRIA , AND THE TOPE . so . m . Press of matter last week prevented us continuing Mr . Shzzisi ' s revelations ofthe state of Italy : wc now return to the subject . Having disposed of the educational pavt of the inquiry , Air . Mszzixi next takes up the financial and commercial state of Vcuetian-Loiubardy . Wc must refer our readers to the pamphlet for tlie tables and official statements cited by Mr . Mazzixi . The following extract affords a glimpse of the financial and commercial wrongs suffered by Italy at the hands of her chief oppressor -.

      —I say onca more * _lhessn _, the climate , tbe extraordinary fertility of the soil , the intelligent ; active , and victorious genius of the Lombard people , struggle in our favour . Some reforms which the revolution bestowed , and which the restoration could not take away , twenty-nine years of peace , aud the natural progress of things , help the stragsle in its slow success ; hut I say that wherever the hand of Government is seen , there also is to be found an obstacle and a hindrance . The hand of die Austrian Government is tobe seen in the enormous import duty Oil COlOllial produce , on wines and _spirits , vpon shins titJ _. er raw or dressed , on spun cotton , kc , which creates the contrahand trade , and ruins Milan , the great emporium for the merchandise of the country , by ordering matters so that similar articles cost less in liiose provinces which border

      on the frontiers : the prohibition of foreign manufactures of silk , cutlon , and wool , product ! tins same result , owing to the insufficiency of tlie supply _manufactured by the State , the immoderate competition of the dealers , and the low prices ashed for contraband goods brought in from without . Confined within narrow territorial limits , de . haired entrance into the other Italian countries which are a market for foreigii manufactures , wanting the direction of an Institute for industrial instruction , the I / jmhardo-Veuelian luanufactuicrs caill ' . Ot Satisfy the demand either _«*«« regard to quantity , variety , or beauty , nor produce goods ou equal twins with other countries . The hand of Vie Austrian _Government means a system of laws and custom-house regulations which impedes the free circulation of manufactures and colonial produce ,

      even within the country , and inflicts a fine an the proprietor of a manufacture , every time a few kilogrammes are surprised in Oieir transit ftom one town of the state to another , without a license taken out from the place of starting ; subjecting tlie merchants , in the frontier districts especially , to the liability of having both their warehouses and dwellings searched by day and night , and often several times a week . Tlie hand of the _-tastruui Gotemmcnl means a code of finance so involved and so obscure * that chance and caprice reign absolute sovereigns in the _Lorobardo-Veneiinn Provinces , imposing taxes npon arts and industry at random , to be extorted hy violence ; to which for the commercial man is added the Mercantile tax , imposed by the Camera di C _' y < nmcrcia : it means the increase of the expense of protesting hills

      of exchange , tlie minimum of which is in _Austrian hres S . 6 i , evenfor an amount helow a . hundred llvres ; by which means the Government fattens upon poverty , since the number of protested bills increases in proportion to the badness of trade . The hand of die Austrian Government means that unjustifiable act by which , in 1 S _10 , the Lombard _0-Vejjetiaiipub 3 icdcbf , J »] _ioivaa _5 IheJfonteJ . oml'ardo-Yeneto , _waj iucrcascd by nearly twenty-five millions \ , to obtain a heavy loan from the greatest usurer in Europe and some of his colleagues — an act which spread distrust among the holders of coupons iu our _Jfonte , and knocked down to 111 ( and at lirst even to 100 } a five par cent , stock which was before selling at about 318 . Tlie hand of Vie Austrian Goeenimail means the enormous tax 0 : 1 postage ( forty centimes from _Jlilan to

      1 _'iaccnza , fourteen leagues distant from each other , CO for Keggio and _Modcna , S 3 for Bologna and Florence , » fcc . ) , thus restricting more and more the intercourse between LomVardy and Central _llaly , already so circumscr ibed by custom-house regulations 4 it menus the entire absence of a jury or tribunal of arbitration , to decide disputes conscientiously and with local knowledge , tedious process , and a fauity organisation ofthe commercial tribunal , before which the pleadings can only he through an advocate , and where facts arc always neglected for forms . 'What between the _systt-m which prohibits the _introdnction of raw material , and the restricted market , we are forced hi Lombardy to export oar rawprothtce and to receive in return manufactured goods at high prices . TUecarelcss trareller _. inissing rapidly through ourpopulous

      towns , is astonished at the luxury displayed m them : lie docs not know that in whiter tlie hospitals are filled witli men who feign themselves ill , in order that they may reeeive there the _aicaiis of sustenance they could not find elsewhere : he sees with admiration houses _and-palaccs -nssas \> y inagic ; \ rat he docs not know that those are no signs of prosperity , but only an investment forced npon capital , which cannot run the hazard of any enterprise of commerce , whilst trade is so hampered and stationary . "What has the Austrian Government ever done to _establish harmony and unity in the relations of commercial and industrial ] _x » Kcy ? It has adopted the decimal system in its relations with the governed ; bnt at the same time _l-cnnVltii-. g the governed themselves to make use of ancient systems in their reciprocal dealings , so that a few

      leagues distance between town and town causes a _dihertucein the circulation of money , and make a variation iu the weights aud measures . What lias the Austrian « 3 overnmcnt done towards turning to practical use , by large hydraulic works for the htnefit of agriculture , the copious streams which flow through lombardy ? "What has it done towards making roads to communicate between place and place ? IVifbful to its rule of impeding progress as much as possible , except so far as to take the direction of every enterprise it cannot succeed in _hindering , it h . ~ s done its best to throw delays in _tilC Way Of tho numerous projected lines of railroad ; hut so soon as the Monza railroad was finished , it hastened to share the success bv _lewinga per centage on the profits , through a

      new postal duty , and by claiming for its own benefit the whole undertaking as soon as the lease expires : it has done the same by the _eeloeiferl _Perhaps , sir , you say undertakings like these ought _HOt to he instigated by Government , hut that tlicy ought to be left to private enterprise . I have not much faith in the miracles of _laisse fairs , _laisser _pas . cr ; hut , _howcier , that may he , recollect sir , that I outspeaking cf a country _tfespoticalbi governed , where the spirit of association is seen with an eye of suspicion ; I ain speaking of a country where individual activity is checked and crashed ii » a thousand ways . When Government declares that the citkem of a country arc to he kept in tbe perpetual tutelage of slaves , _itimplit-Iflv undertakes to act for them and to direct their nii _' airs .

      Mr . Mjizzixi next reviewsthe administration of justice in Lombard—Venetian Italy , which owing to the complexity and tardiness of the proceedings , tlie multiplicity of Jaws , the enormity of judicial expenses , tbe Lad arrangement of the prison ? , and the defective organisation of the magistracy , is of the worst possible character . Eighty to ninety volumes form the government collection of laws ; " to which must be added the cades civil and criminal , the code of those misdemeanours of which the police takes cognisance , : md tlie code of custom-house dues __ and regulations , the high degrees of the judicial hierarchy—that is io say , where they who preside in the courts have to decide on questions wherein a perfect knowledge of the Italian and its dialects is indispensable—arc lilled by 'Germans who can hardly _stanunerthelausnage . Mr . _Mixmisaxs" . —

      -Those concerned in civil suits arc often weaned out , and renounce their claim , resigning themsclres to _thelirst loss . Vut these defects have a more seiious influence in _c-riniiual causes , Oa the thhd of September 1310 , an individual was brought up from the prison of Coino , who had been confined there for two years _icilhout latum being cssminah But not to dwell longer oa special eases , the occurrence of which however rarely is sufficient to condemn the system , I assert that criminal causes gcnCAd ' y last / or yeah . Ill clothed , ill fed , the accused languish all the time in prisons which usually are unhealthy : aud where , ifihcy do not die of scurvy , they often come out imbecile , unable to work , or at least utterly unable to

      procure any : crowded , ten , fifteen , twenty together 111 the same prison , where the _innocent perhaps , or those guilty of very slight crimes , are mingled with ru / aans and assassins , tiieycomeontasfroro aschool ofinfamy , utterly depraved . And I say , that when the system by virtue of which these men are placed there , relics on _suehaoasis ass « r _«» istbe proceedings , and the fate ofthe accused is placed in the hands of a councillor invested at rlie same time with the functions of defender and judge , one can _nenher conceive nor understand _enfcgioais bestowed on ihe administration of Austrian justice , unless they arc dictated U- bad faith or an unpardonable ignorance on a point in which millions of men are concerned .

      mt the worst feature of Austrian despotism remains to be shown—the system of espionage aud police rule . There are in Lombardy alone 800 police agents , &¦» gendarmes , 1233 police guards , with a whole army of guardians , ander-guardians , gaolers , _seconding guards of fortified places , Ac . There are guards of the frontiers , ofthe communes , ofthe woods and forests , of the towns , all under the control of the police . There are spies of the viceroy , ofthe governor , of the director of police , af the _coni-UlissaricE , of the delegates , of the _disirict-comniissaries . of the bishops , nf tlie provosts , acting

      independently of each other , but all joining the main root » f the supreme police at Vienna . " All this mass , " says Mr . _Mazzjxi , " all this iniquitous inob ( I do not include the armv , though that also is a tool ofthe police } , has for its principal object the search after and suppression of national opinion . _TFitn this , in a political regard , overvtking it £ an do is right , every-* _wng : is permitted to it . Every outrage is allowed ; wb alma has no longer even the shadow of _profectwa . Jt is a warfare , a dishonest warfare , without pay , _ without shame , carried on in darkness , by _stents who combine all the tricks of chicane-with the cold-blooded cruelty of an Iroquois "

      . Ifr . _Jvtazrsi draws the _following awful picture of the tortures inflictsd on the suspected patriots in the Austrian dungeons , .-rod the hellish system of espionage , of -which they are the _victims . It must be remembered that 11 * , _itezari is addressing Sir James _£ ?* mM , who , if he h . is a particle of conscience Jeu- _must-snoly feel the iwi > ires of remorse , sham e ,

      Italy, Austria, And The Tope. So. M. Pre...

      and self-detestation , when remembering the vile part he has performed in helping to furnish victims to glut the cold-blooded savagery of _Mbtxebsicu and Go . Have you ever read , sir , two books from the pens of political sufferers at the Austrian Spielberg , Silvio PelUco and Andryane , containing the account of their sufferings , written witli so much moderation that one of them has been allowed to be printed and reprinted in Italy ? If you have not , sir , endeavour to find time , between the issuing of one warrant aud another , to glance over tlicm . Perhaps when you learn ihe vengeance that overtakes political offenders in . Austrian Italy _§—when you sec , beside the horrors alluded to in the note , the torture of

      hunger , literally of mm er , inflicted upon them ; when you see Fictro Mstroncelli losing his left leg in consequence ofthe weight and _pressure of his fetters—losing it by amputation at the upper part of the thigh , because the Governor of Spielberg , having received his prisoner with two legs , was obliged to give him up in the same condition , and therefore could not allow the operation to take place until he had received a sanction from Vienna perhaps , I say , you will then bare a glimmering perception of the terrible responsibility which is attached to the communication of intelligence obtained from the correspondence of any foreigner over whom you may play the spy on behalf of Austria .

      And do you Know , sir , how people reach S pielberg from Lombardy ? Are you aware how slight a matter , when once the suspicions of Austria ate excited , is sufficient to precipitate the victim _tiithcr ? Take the trials of 16-20-21 , they will tell you . They trill tell you now _ColoaelSilrio Morctti was condemned to fifteen " years of the careers duro , npon what were _calied indicicil proofs , founded on false statements m . de against him by some of his fellow-accused , when , in consequence of a report of his suicide spread throug h the prisons by the Government , they believed him past _danger ; but retracted by them when they saw him alive before the court . They

      will tell you ol Lieutenant Giovanni Bachiega sentenced to fifteen years of the curare duro , as convicted not only ofacoKCd hostile intentions _toicards the Imperial House of Austria , but as disposed to resist it arms tnliund : and this _because be replied " Certainly" to the judge ' s demand , " Would youhcar arms for Italy , if some dag she shovM rise _nationaUyi" They trill tell _jou _ofllazht , an ex-Captain of Engineers , condemned to three years of tlie atrccrc duro in the castle of Laybach , because lie gave an ambiguous reply to the judge ' s question of " whether he would have denounced a Carbonaro if lie hud Known him to be such •/ and this was ruled to be an answer in the ucgativc .

      Do not fancy , sir , that thescaveexceptumal cases , which might have been _jirodurcd from the terror excited in Austria hy the insurrections of Naples and Piedmont : I wall ! show many similar examples in the trials of 1 S 31 andl _&> 3 . Uut it is not iu these iniquitous condemnations to Spielberg , these coups d ' cclat of Austrian justice , that lies tbe wound which festers in Lombardy : it is possible , when nationality is a belief , not a reaction , to leave _Sjiielherg , like my estimable _ii-iend Dr . _Forcsti _, calm , unmoved , the same as the man of fifteen years before . It is the general system , at work round each individual—at work each day of the year , each hour of the day—endeavouring , to crush under mistrust , suspicion , and fear , the moral faculties of our youth , to which 1 would point : it is the brutal exhibition of physical force , from the levelled cannons on the Duomo at Jlilan , mute but do < inent symbols , chum to thu insolence of the _UQlice-gttAVUS who eneuuibfcr Ihe streets day and night—from the base and brutal manner ia which the Austrian officers treat the

      young men of tlie L 111 versify of I _' avia on tbe least appearance of disorder , down to the liberty granted to custom-house officers to lire on smugglers in their flight : it is the arbitrary ami frequent refusal of passports for foreigii countries , and even for the interior , combined with the enormous penalties on those who dare to do without them ; the unlimited and irresponsible pov _.-er of arrest _giren to the police ; the prohibition of inviting one ' s friends to a ball without previously giving notice to the police : it is the habitual violation of Government amnesties , such as , for instance , caused l ) c Luigi to be refused permission to exorcise his profession of advocate , although the words of the decree in tlie faith of which he returned did not contain any such restriction ; Snell as threw iu prison Lanoefti , another amnestied emigrant , who , at the end of two years , ruined by his _Uavl tvwvt mcut , was set at liberty to die , involving curses on his persecutors : it is tho omnipotence granted to the superior agents of the police , going even to impiety , and

      producing , in what concerns political cases , such motistrtras facts as that of the Count Itolza forcing a _saci'istpn to give Mm a consecrated _nvifcr , which he admiuistcrcd himself iu 1 _S _33 to one _lliauchi , who was in prison and dying , to do away with all excuse for admitting within tbe walls even a priest ; the violation—but that will not strike you , Sir James , as anything very immoral—the violation of private correspondence : the prccello in the name of the police stud without any interference on the part Of the tlibuuals , forbidding hundreds of individuals from leaving the town for an indtfmito time : and beyond all ibis , iiis the system of espionage , organised on such a scale that iu the city of Milan alone it ; costs the sum of near 200 , 000 Austrian livres a month , invading the peace of families , breaking the bonds of friendship , scattering tic seeds of _sellisni and corruption , gaining ite ends hy calumny , going even the length of provokiajr crime when it can discover none to reveal—distributing revolutionary documents with one hand and signing a dnuueiaction with the other . Next week wc shall exhibit the abominations of the Papal Government .

      * So Obscure, In Fact, That The Anhc Cou...

      * So obscure , in fact , that the Anhc Council , hy whose a . _senejthe code was issued , was' obliged ' Some _SCVC 11 or eight years ago to call in the assistance of a Koyal Lombard Commission , to settle the best interpretation to be put on certain clauses . 1 The debt known as the _-Vonfc Lombardo-Vencto , which devolved on Austria with our provinces in 1 S 13 , was the quota falling to us , on a proportional division with other Italian States , of the public debt of the Kingdom of Italy , known as the _Xante SapoUonc ; which in its turn partly _arose-fxovAtte recognition anil transmutation of the old provincial debts . There is now talk of a projected addition of fifteen millions move . t For the convenience of a private letter-bos , commercial men pav five centimes extra far every letter .

      j Tiic condemned shall be confined in a dungeon , secluded from all communication , with only so much light and space as is necessary to _sustain life ; he shall he constantly loaded with heavy fetters on thehauds ami feet : he shall never , except during the _Ilvmvs of labour , be without a chain attached to a circle of iron round his body ; I 115 diet shall be bread and water , a hot ration every second day ; hut never any animal food—his bed to be composed of nnlicd piaufes , and he shall be forbidden to see anyone —without exception . " —Such is the definition of thecarccre daritslmo in the I _' enal Code , § 14 . The hot ration (< : ' J > o _calalo ) consists of slices of bread steeped in hot water , and flavoured with tallow . It is a common thing for those condemned _tothecaiwrcdiii'o to wear twenty-pounds _weight of chains : they arc worked like _gaUcy-slaves , and have neither _lujjit nor paper nor hooks : never , except sometimes hy an extraordinary favour on Sundays ( to attend mass , ' ) leaving _tlii-ir cold and humid cells .

      Xionr Ascexi Or Mr. Greex, Ix Ms B.Uxoox...

      _Xionr Ascexi or Mr . Greex , ix MS B . uxoox , WITH _KlKEWOHRS , TO 0 X ! _YaUXHAI . T . GahDESS . —Oil Monday night this celebrated aerial voyager undertook the perilous feat of a night ascent in Lis balloon , displaying fireworks of a novel and extraor dinary description from the car . The gardens were crowded . The balloon selected by Mr . Green was the Albion , formerly the property of Mr . Hampton , an intrepid aeronaut . Mr . Green considerably enlarged it , audit will now contain 20 . 000 cubic feet of gas , and stands 00 feet in height . Mr . Darby , the artist to the gardens , had the arrangement of the fireworks , which were attached to a frame or wheel , aud this was suspended to the car by a line of about 70 feet in length , attached to a swivel , so that it might spin freely in the air , and thus increase- the effect of the disolav . The frame consisted of three

      conjunct wheels , the radius ol each being six leet , the circumference of the entire frame 86 feet , and the separation between each wheel 13 inches . Mr . Green was provided with a regulating winch iu the car , so ' that he was enabled to wind up or lower the frame with the fireworks at pleasure . The fireworks eonsistcd of variegated lights , Italian gcrbs , with les ]) Cth ctoiles , coloured Roman candles , French jets , aud Chinese streams of lire , concluding with an enormous bouquet of coloured fires . Mr . Green , on ascending the car , stated that this was his three hundred and filth ascent , and that it was twenty-one years since he first ascended with fireworks , on which occasion he alighted at Kim ; George ' s farm at Richmond . The car was then attached to the balloon ,

      Mr . Green previously depositing in it his barometer , _alarge lantern of peculiar construction , his compass , map , a guide-line of about a thousand feet , grapnel , and between two and three hundred weight of ballast , in bags varying from ten to twenty pounds each ; likewise a _ntwificr of coloured lights to assist him in his descent . The frame with the fireworks was then affixed to the car , great care being taken to prevent its position being reversed from the horizontal to the vertical , as in the ease of Madame Blanchtwd , who lost her life in a night ascent at Paris , the frame , by an accident , becoming reversed , and the fireworks consequentlv plaving into the car , instead of beneath the balloon ignited the silk , and an explosion enascent

      sued . At eleven o ' clock the signal for was given . Mr . Green immediately seized the "Jiberating iron" with one hand , and lighting the fusee with the other , . the ascent took place , amidst the cheers of the assembled thousands outside the gardens , and of the company within . The _fceworks „ i a few seconds were discharged , and a more brilliant aerial exhibition was never witnessed . Ihe balloon took a northern direction , and it was gencraUv considered that Mr . Green would laad u \ _MiddLese . \ . The ascent will be repeated . _Goveusmext has very properly made a _pn'Jff £ 20 , 000 for the relief of the sufferers by the gieat fires at Quebec .

      _Axoiher Cuke wnEXAtttosr at Death s boob , w Hon . owAY _' sPiixs _.-Mi'S . T \ iUiams , aladyoflorlune , residing at Clapham-rise _, was given tip by the _^ _most eminent medical men , who all agreed that she had what is termed " no inside left , " her stomach , Jim . and heart were in a most disordered condition , anu altogether so generally debilitated , as to be scarcely able to _wallctwentyyards without fainting ; however , in two months , b y undergoing a _conrsp ot this m-Tigorating and life-preserving medicine , she _nas regainedherfonncr health , and _strength ,. aw _«*»?»» walk twenty miles a day _.

      Cog^Ottoeiufc

      Cog _^ _ottoeiufc

      To Thb Editob Of The Kortuebn Stab. Sib ...

      TO THB _EDITOB OF THE KORTUEBN STAB . Sib . —The letter which reaches you under this cover was originally designed for ' publication in the Nation newspaper , as the proper vehicle to contain a refutation of the slanderous statements and uncharitable sen timents transferred from tbe lips of our _\ ery Irish " Liberator ' . " to its columns . Such , however , is the state of things here with regard to the Conciliation Hall censorship exercised over the press , with which it pretends to disclaim all connection , that the Editor of this best of our Dublin

      "Liberal" print * , politely returned mc the US . in a note , stating that he declined publishing it , "lest evil instead of good might _avise" from its appearance . The Editor has a perfect right to protect his pecuniary interests , and perhaps ifhc fears that" evil" may accrue to mc , on the "hooting" system , I oui'htto thank him for his watchful tenderness , but having already borne the denunciation of the great leader , I am callous to his abuse , and will not place truth in abeyance , lest evil may fall on the enemies of toleration , the toes of charity , if not of Christianity . 1 trust , sir , you will do mc the justice denied by the _Aiiti'dn as an old reader and admirer of the Star , IV , II . Dvorr .

      CIVIL AXD llELIGIOUS LIBERTY . To the Editor of the Nation ! Sin , —It may be asserted of your journal , and _ivitliout the suspicion of flattery , that it is more fearlessly independent aud move magnanimously just , than any other newspaper claiming for itself the _designation " -liberal " in Ireland , for while with unequalled ability and unrivalled spirit it brings ihe whole artillery of literature to hear upon the national foe , still the courtesies af civilised warfare are preserved , and wen the ' enemy must allow that his assailants , and in instances I trust to be multiplied , his conquerors—arc gentlemen . If such be tlie character established by Ibc _condnptoi' 5 of the _A ' atlon amongst foreign adversaries , much morebavc they gained for themselves , amongst their own countrymen all tlie

      respect and admiration , winch must ever be consequent on pursuing : the patli of principle with manliness , moderation , and justice—allowing no merely ' , factious or sectariau bias to warp or distort the ever glorious truth ; allowing fairly for the honest prejudices of men who have been taught to differ from them , and reciprocating esteem _tt-ith those who as manfully combatfor their peculiar convictions . Such a line of conduct has earned for the Ai <( _ic > Ji reverence , aye , and authority , toe , even amongst the Orangemen of the north , fvoni which I have but just returned , or I would before this have claimed on tiie part of outraged " Civil and lteligious Liberty" a corner in the valuable columns of your journal . I claim it now , solemnly and emphatically claim it , asa rightful concession to eternal justice , to slandered Christianity , and to in . suited liberty .

      _InlheA ' _aliott ofthe 12 th of JuVy , l find the following passage : — "If there be infidels amongst us thoy must have the hypocrisy to conceal their principles , for weil they know that if they were to make a _profession of them , they would he hcoted from society . "—Speccfl of Alt ' . Daniel _O'CoiuieK at " Conciliation Mill on Monday , July 10 i , as reported in , the Nation . Xow , Mr . Editor , as a person deeply conversant with the tone of popular feeling , I ask you , do you really believe the above statement , or do you uot agree with me that it is unfounded iu fact and grossly slanderous upon the Christians of-Ihe present day' What ! if a milll happens to be so " invincibly Ignorant , " so hopelessly obtuse , as to arrive at conclusions , on matters mystical and miraculous , in accordance with those entertained by

      liayh , Gibbon , _llosseau / Owen , and others of the Philosophic cast , and if he be honestly simple enough to candidly express his theological sentiments , do you really believe that the good Christians of these days would _f- _'i-ociously " hoot" him out of society ' s or being allowed to go as far as "hooting" by their " moral force" commander , try perhaps to change his sentiments by alterations on his cereb . il region—such as raising a " bump" ou his " veneration" department , & e . Seriously , sir , if such bo the case , what advances , after all our clamouring , have we made iu the true understanding , and real practice of civil and religious liberty ? And ifit be not the case , must not the man be deeply depraved in heart by the

      venomous taint of a relentless bigotry , who dares to give utterance to such sentiments fur himself—much more , to charge them on the entire body of the " orthodox ? " If such sentiments arc not entertained by the Christians of Ireland—aud I do not believe they arc—will any of them have manliness to come forward now , to disavow and to repudiate them ?—Will they show that their ClUIim _iscoual to their Faith ? ov are we , indeed , to sit down in tin belief that " Toleration , " however talked about , is 11 doctrine which only includes those sects _which-are numerous enough to defend themselves , while civil excommunication , "hooting out of society , " is to be the gentle reproof with which honest conscientious dissent from popular aud current creeds is to be met 1

      Sir , vfe cannot disguise the fact—such is the exposition of Christianity , given by one of its most _illuStl'IOUS lay defenders in ' . the . nineteenth century—it lias . no bowels for the unbeliever ; the wall of partition , ( according to Mr . _O'CoimeUl between Jew and Gentile might as well have never been thrown down ; and , : had he lived in the days of tbe apostles I doubt not but , he would have resisted St . Paul on Circumcision and St . Peter on l _' ork J . ¦ But I fearlessly demand of Mr . O'Connel ) , where , iu the Bible , except in the bloody dispensation of the Jews , from which the new law that God "in ' thc fullness of time " thought proper to deliver to the world , redeemed us , he finds ground for the inhuman doctrine of "hooting men out of society" for their religious opinions , however erroneous . ' I am confident that the Christian priesthood of Ireland will make no such discovery in the New

      Testament , and that if they did , ' they would blush to hnd the uncharitable record there . And' shall the arrogance of any layman , no matter what his celebrity or authority in other matters , lead him to ' 'fulminate his auathemas against men who , morally , may be as good as himself at least ! _Wiatis it to me that the fires of _Sinhhfield be extinguished by civilising processes of _titnc _. if 1 am to be dared to come forth , in order that I may be destroyed—for if 1 be hooted out of society , made a pariah in the land of my birth , I a tit socially annihilated or obliged to remain silent with that less of self-respect , which ever must / wait upon hypocrisy enforced ? ' lletterbe murdered at oiice than driven from the haunts and sympathies of meri . ' !" Jiut mark , sir , the " ; inconsisteuc _^ _fj itr _^^ oltt _^ _S'g _^ is the advocate of the Jews , _D 0 t , fumM _^^ W & i _^

      motives as other great men arc , and yet the Jews do most cordially detest the memory of Christ as an impostor , who troubled their Rabbis and blasphemed their God . Did not he ( Mr . O'C . _) deem Kaphuel a renegade infidel Jew , and _though a kiwi of Chrysalis Christian , " a most incomprehensible vagabond , " sufficiently good to represent the Christian constituency of Carlow ? And did lie not select for his own coadjutor in administering the parliamentary rights of the Catholics of Dublin , a gentleman named Iluttcn , an extreme Unitarian , who , being true to bis own principles , must repudiate the divinity of Christ , eren if lie allow tlie virginity of his mother ; nay , he ( Jlr . O'C . ) then hurled civil-cxcommunicalion against the pious timid , who from a religious scruple hesitated to vote for this gentleman .

      Truly , sir , Mr . O'Connell appears to have vacillated 011 the question of religions liberty to quite as great an extent as upon tlie subject of Poor Laws , and only to have got as far at any time ns what philosophers call the " pivot" point . He seems now , indeed , to have abandoned "toleration" altogether , and changed his sentiments as completely on the subject of _Ghvistian charity as on that of " mixed education . " God grant that his nest aberration be not on " repeal , " for 1 am content to count the slight oscillation towards federalism which you , sir , corrected as au error , rather more venial than the slip with regard to the " wings" so unmercifully clipped by poor Jack Lawless , whose soul may God assoillsize .

      In sending you this letter , sir , 1 have acted both on impulse and with deliberation . 1 consider that liberty can never be said to exist whilst any class among _mim are oppressed . 1 think it opposed to tho genius of Christianity as well as the plain dictates of justice , to exercise terrorism over the variations of human thought . In all ages , some of the most celebrated men , whether for scientific and literary attainments , for public virtue ov for private worth , have b : cn of what is maliciously termed the " infidel" school—they _cxUt largely in Trance , England , America , and every country of progress at present , and there arc some of them in Ireland too , notwithstanding what Mr . O'Connell asserts to the contrary . To these men I would extend the protection of the law , and the courtesies of society , _making them for their actions alone , like any other sect , responsible . I have argued the matter both as a Christian and as a 1 _'cist _, Without _AVOWillg mvsclf either ; what has the world to do with my

      opinions : I oppugn no man for his . But 1 claim for avl what each demands—freedom af thought and liberty of speech , and though I should again be denounced as a " fellow , " and a " miscreant , " aye , sir , even should you be lauded for the " praiseworthy propriety" with which you may refuse mc the insertion of this letter , still will I struggle undismayed , to assert that liberty , without which life is disrobed of hali its dignity , and to hold up to the moral indignation of the world , the base betrayers of their mission , who , with lips absolutely hired to preach freedom in its fullest extent , daily give utterance to sentiments totally subversive of the cuds they themselves affect to propose , anil whilst thus stultifying former propositions , forget that an intelligent foe will not fail to note the discrepancies of their speeches and the spuriousness of their doctrines—retarding' the great cause of human progression , although most unjustly , on account of the imperfections of its loudest , I will not say its most sincereadvocateslest I should inflict a wound on truth .

      , , I trust 1 may be acquitted of any _presumption in publishing this letter . Ho man is too hunMe , anil every man in a free community has the right to be heard . I am not satisfied _ivith a so-fai _' -shalt-thou-go-aiid-no-farthei ' sort of freedom of opinion . Intolerance must be altogether given up ; indeed , I had begun to hope that expediency had dug its grave , and justice consigned it to oblivion in that peace which it had long denied the world . Sacred for ever be the rights of conscience . ' We would do well to imitate our transatlantic brethren . A convention of "infidels" met the other day in America , who were neither "hooted" nor maltreated , _tliouff h an orthodox journal passed a good joke enough on the occasion , fcys . ajing that they looked as if they fell out with God Almighty for making them so ugly , the majority of their faces being such as Lhvatcr would not countenance .

      Strong in my oivn motives , Jlr . Editor , putting faith m yonr fairness , and hoping'to arrest the vile practice of sectarian denunciation , by claiming liberty , Iwfh civil and religions for man , whether black , . < vhitc , Christian , Pagan , or Jew . J remain , with profound respect , rone _obedient servant , -2 * , _Kcrft Jiimj-strcef . W . ff _. _DXOTT .

      Ajwtfltore Antr Loitmtitutt*

      _ajwtfltore antr _loitmtitutt _*

      Field-Garden Operations. For The, Week C...

      FIELD-GARDEN OPERATIONS . For the , Week commencing Monday , Aug . I'M , 1843 . lExtractcd from a _DuRvef Actual Operations on five smatl annson the estates of tho late Mrs . IX Gilbert , near xastbourne , in Sussex ; and on several model farms on the estates ofthe Earl of-Dartmouth at _blaithivaite , in Yorkshire , published by Mr . Nowell , oi l'arnley Tyas , near IIuddersMd , iu order to guide other possessor _* of field gardens , by showing them what labours ought to be undertaken on tkeir own lands . The farms selected as models ave—First Two school farms at VVillingdon and Eastdean . ol

      live acres each , conducted by U . Cruttcnden and John Uarris . Second . Two private farms , of five ov six acres : one worked by Jesse Piper , tlie other by John Dumbrcll—the former at Eastdcaii , tllG latter at Jcv mgton—all of them within a few miles of Eastbourne . Third . An industrial school farm , at Slaitbwaite , Fourth . Several private model farms near the same place . The consecutive operations in these reports will enable the curious reader to compare the climate mil agricultural value of the south with the north of England . The Diary is aided by _"JS _' otesand Observations" from the pen of Mr . Nowell , calculated for tho tone and season , which we . subjoin .

      " llic wisest men—the greatest philosophers—after in vain _sceking-for happiness in every variety of pursuit , have found it in the cultivation of the ground . " Note . —The school farms are cultivated by boys , wh _« in mum / or time hours' teaching in the morning , give three hours of their labour in the afternoon , for the master ' s benejit , which renders-the schools sei . fsvrronnsG . We believe that at Famly Tyas sixsevenths of the _jirodwo of the school farm will be assigned to the boys , and onc-scucmh to the master , who villi receive the usual school fees , help the boys to cultivate their land , ' and teach them , in addition to reading , -writing , & c , to convert their produce into bacon , by attending to 2 > ig-lccc 2 ) ing , which at Christmas may be divided , after paying rent and levy , amongst them in _jirojjwtwa to their services , and be made thus indirectly to reach their parents in ' a way the most grateful to theirfcelings , ]

      •¦ ¦ SUSSEX . Moxday— WUUngdon School , No report for the week , probably tho little boys out with the farmers . Piper . iteapiiig wheat . Dumbrcll , Digging up tave ground , and reaping wheat . _Tuesday—JVpcr . Heaping wheat . Dumbrcll . Digging up tare ground , reaping wheat , and hoeing turnips . _Wednesday—I'ificr . Cleaning pig stye , and reaping wheat , bumbrell . Transplanting swede turnips , digging up tare ground , and reaping wheat and oats . _TnuitsBAv—Piper . Reaping wheat . _Dirmordl . Mowing oats , and reaping wheat . _Fbiiuy—Piper . Mending lucerne with liquid . _JSttntbrell . Heaping oats , and wheat . Saturday—Piper . Finished wheat reaping , and pulling peas . DumbrcU . __ Mowing oats , reaping wheat , and emptying the privy _paifs .

      _COW-FKEDIKO . Piper . Cows are feeding upon white turnips , grown upon the land where the rye and tares came oil last spring !! Dumbrcll . During the week one cow grazed in the day , aud fed mom and even with -iOibs . of cabbage . Aiid one cow and heifer stall-fed entirely , with _lCllbs . of tares .

      Lv\G Aiixess.—Behind Tho Cow-House In Tl...

      LV \ g AiixEss . —Behind tho cow-house in _tlio main yard you shouW have a , spacious uvea , divided by a roadway in tho middle , and alloit'ing on cither side a roomy quadrant shaped _iloor , upon which lo compost tlm manure ejected from the _caiv-houso . It should be _cuc-tacd by a wall , actum-as a breastwork

      to the manure heap when formed , which "will prevent evaporation , and escape oFUquid from its sides , by restoring what filtrates to the floor of tiic misei ) . This yard is to be your agricultural laboratory ; for truly , many chemical changes , although invisible to you , will- there be effected , and a great variety oi valuable products obtained for future use . As ' dung niixcn , which contains these products , is tl most important agent—it is a thing for you to be \ cry prom ! of . You may send across the seas to the Chincha islands , or to Ichaboe _, for guano ; but in a dung mixeyt , properly compounded , you will find , to a certain extent , all the inaredicnts that-give that excellent manure its value .

      1 ask . —In putting down the tauk , or forming the _lloovs fov these . mixens , alt your care will bo required so that 116110 . . of your fluids may bo lost . The best place for the tank will , bo near the entrance to tlie composting , yard , partly under one of the mixens , but _also-vcachingjiiadcr . the wall into the main yard , so that its contents , may , be inspected from without . There let , it be , placed , in a pit sunk within the ground , so-low ,,. that , there 111 ay . be a good descent towards , it from every pari ; of the yard . It may be ( untied of bricks . ; or , whatis better , of stones grooved and jointed , ' , . and placed upon a _lloor of well puddled clay at . Uio ; bottom of . the pit . After it is placed _Uusvft _, it TOWst be cemented well together , and surrounded , with clay puddle _lvell beaten down at its sides , particularly , at the bottom and corners . After the tank _iseo _.-ifpletcd , Jet your gutters Or channelled stones _bahiid down to it in a direct line , across the

      _^ a _\ _R oot's of -the mixcus , from the cow-house , piggery , « fce ., with cave ; and then let the whole floors behJJed , to tho height of the channel stones , with well beaten clay puddle , at an inclination from the outer walls in all directions to them . Let these tight claydioors be paved with rough stones , so that all draining _^ from tiic inixeii by _falling upon them may be conveyed to the gutters , and joining the liquid in its passage from the cow-lodge or other sources , both may How without interruption to the tank . To promote this , the gutters , as also that part of the tank _lyhich is intended to lie under the niixcn , must bo covered with loose _^ tones ,. to prevent the intrusion of manure from above ' _^^^^ t _! t _£ _xua _ffipfrom the eves ofthe building , and _^^ _m _^^ vf _^ _enj- ' souree _.--m led away _alxouktiier fiwm _tiiistabp - _Aito''TAKK . ; i ,. and your manure manufactory , with ' the exception of ' placing , the pump , will be completed . |

      Task Liquid Pump . —Within , and near the doorway of , the composting yard , place down your pump , so that its working barrel being buried in the warm manure _lieaji up to the cistern , the freezing of its contents during winter may bo prevented . The lever of tho pump must project over the wall , and be worked in the main yard , while its delivering pipe may bo furnished with a wooden spout eight or ten feet long , conncctecl together by a swivel joint , round which it turns horizontally—inwards—over the manure , in order that the tank liquid being - pumped may flow over either inixeii—or outwards , into a water barrel mounted upon wheels , standing in the main yard , from whence- it becomes removed to the growing crops , or applied to other purposes _.

      Size oi' Task . —In regard to the size of the tank , one of five feet in length , three feet in breadth , and three feet in depth , has been found quite sufficient for eight or ton head of cattle ; it will be tilled generally in about seventeen days . Such a tank maybe emptied , and its contents spread upon grass near the homestead in about an hour . In the West of Yorkshire , the cost of one ofthe above dimensions , exclusive of digging the pit , and the puddling , will be about fifty shillings . _TuMroiunr Taxk . —If a cottager , or his landlord , wishes to avoid expense , iv good substitute will be found by sinking within the ground one or two oil

      pipes , or sugar hogsheads , connected by a tube at the bottom , and placing them upon a bed of puddled clay well beaten , having the sides well enwrapped with the same material ; as the girths decay , tho vessels by external pressure will remain firmly united together aud last many years , especially if the inside be charred . I must beg you , however , during the fixing of these things , always to remember , and have uppermost in your mind , that a- single aperture , through which a knitting needle could scarcely pass , may be the means of tapping your tank , and _iiitlidrawing part of its contents , while you remain in ignorance of its existence .

      Method of Composting Manure . —Spread equally , and cover the whole of each niixcn floor , with a layer of cow dung , hovse litter , & c , to the thickness of eight or ten inches , and keep the long straw nearest the floor . Then for every cart load of fresh dung , take 10 or 121 tjs . of gypsum ( plaster of Paris ) pounded from the rock , which will cost you from 2 s . 6 d . to 3 s . per cut , sprinkle it over the surface of the lavcr of dung . __ Bring jn a ] oad 0 f mould from headlands , decaying _v _^ vAs _, scouring of ditches , road scrapings , stubble , saw dust , indeed-nothing can come amiss , and leaving it on the composting yard pavement , the cart may pass through the cow-Iodgc without turning round . Let the rubbish , so left , be handed to cither nuxen , and spread over the surface ; moreover , when you can , at intervalsobtain a load or two of earthy

      , mate , yon may spread it upon the other . In this statelet it remain as a covering , until you have a Iresh supply of _dtmg- under the manure doors , then iork over tho first stratum , mixing the dung anil mould or rubbish well together , and proceed just as before , careful neither to omit the gypsum , nor mould , 111 forming a second one . Previous to fonnlng another repeat the forking over of the previous layer , and alter a lew repetitions , pump and diffuse over the whole surface as much tank liquid as will completeJy . saturate tho manure heap , and any excess will tall back again into the tank ; and this repeat , liom time to time , when it may be deemed necessary to _oo so . _^ itli many animals in the byres , and much _space-ui . the _3 'avd , you may thus create an enormous t » uj ; c ol manure , rich , and uniformly mixed .

      lunTHER MEAN'S OF XNRICniXO TIIE Mixex . —Your pigs must be continuall y supplied with fresh mould ; tuiich they will tread into the richest compost ; id rnaj then be handed over to and compounded into the mixen . The night-soil compost , hereafter described , may be also used in the same manner . _People _Jfenon of _CoLLTJCTjxo'HuMAN Manure . — A very -ingenious- method is followed- bythe P _^ ast hourne nelui ga . _rdcncr-3 ; in order ti ) ¦ _cofhiet all tlie _exemuentitiojis matter voided' in the privies ! _;~ An

      Ale Cask With One End Removed, Large But...

      ale cask with one end removed , large butter firkin , or tub , value about 2 s . 0 d ,, is provided ; a Jew indies below its top , two strong iron cat's or handles , are firmly rWotteu _, for the convenience of removing it . Two of these tubs arc usually placed under the privy seats , and when nearly filled are easily removed to the composting shed by two persons , cash taking hold of a handle . Thoy are then turned upside down , and the contents received upon mould , and immediately composted with more mould , ashes , or other refuse , Using 8 or lOlbs . of gypsum ( plaster of _Taris ) for each pail full of materials . This mixture may be further enriched by the addition of tank liquid , beating all well together to the consistency of mason ' s lime ; when spread upon the floor of the shed it will soon dry spontaneously , _ant _^ be found a most valuable top-dressing for every kind of crop , upon which it may bo sown by hand , for all offensive Slliell ia speedily removed by the action of the gypsum , and the retentive quality ofthe mould or ashes .

      PuMvic . vnOS OV Cities . —[ "The animal loss in England , in liquid manure alone , has boon estimated at seven _niilliois sterling !! " )— "Were this simple method adopted in town and country , then might we expect to see British agriculture soon fl _mrish in full perfection . Liquid excrementitious matter has become an article of trade in manufacturing districts ; why should not solid become the same ? Ncav every town undoubtedly there ought to be a regular Domestic Guano manufactory carried on , ov contributed to , by the public scavengers ; and surely , ere long , the collection of agents so important will claim the attention of men of capital and enterprise . Tubs with tight fitting lids and deep rims might be used for this purpose , to collect the soil in privies , bo replaced , when

      filled , by others , and borne , in covered well contrived vans , tothe suburbs of our cites ; where , in open composting sheds , the domestic guano , or other mixtures hereafter described , might be fabricated . The ashes from coal iires , at the same time , might be separately tubbed , borne away , and afterwards used to compound with and assist in their desiccation . The agency of steam , also , could well he applied to dry snub compounds , nml of mechanical arrangements for beating up the ingredients . By such means all offensive smell in privies would be unknown , and the removal of their contents not-bo offensive . While tho elaboration of them would be found fur less unpleasant than can be imagined ; of this the writer is fully convinced , from a close observation of the feelings of i ' avin servants m its performance . In order that wc may appreciate those neglected tilings at their true raiiic _^ let us _atlcud to the i ' _oilou'iug important observations of an eminent philosopher . " If we admit" says _Boussingault , " the liquid and solid

      excrements ot man amounts on an average to lM ' os daily ( _Iilb urine , and } _tt > . of i ' cescs ) , nml that both taken together contain 3 per cent of nitrogen , then in one year they amount to _o-171 uS ., which contain MUlfts . of nitrogen , a quantity sufficient to yield the nitrogen of SOOlbs . of wheat , rye , oats , or of _UOOlbs . of barley . " And again , "Why" says Dr . _Auckland , " should we go so far as the shores of Africa when wc have the remedy within ourselves—the essence of ale and beer , and the quintessence of beef and bread and cheese ? These ave the best of all possible manures , nnd why ? Because tlicy restore to the hind that which the corn and the ox have takeu away ; because they restore things which the atmosphere cannot restore ; that element can furnish charcoal and ammonia" to growing plants , "but not that nutritious phosphate of beef , nor the gluten which enters into the commodities of which beer is composed . "

      Lecture On Agricultural Chemistry. Bv Pr...

      LECTURE ON AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY . Bv Professor Joiixstox . If you take a portion of anything you raise for crops—of flour for example—and mix it with water so as to form it , and afterwards work it with water over a glass , letting the water fall into it , you will find the water become milky . Do this so long as the water which runs off the dough becomes milky , and afterwards yon will find that the substance in your hand has undergone a change , having become more sticky , and fibrous . If you allow tho milky substance to settle , it will become clear , and there will remain at the bottom a write powder , which wc call . starch . Now , the substance in your hand is called gluten , and the clear liquid at the bottom will contain sugar and gum . Thus you can separate wheat flour into two parts , viz ., starch , the powder rcinaiiiingin the glass : and gluten , the _substanccjin your hand . 'The same would take place with any other vegetable matter ; fov instance , if straw was cut into small pieces and pounded in a _uiortcr—with tho difference , perhaps , that what would remain i » the kind would eouskt wholly of woody fibre , which differs from gluten ; still there would be- aquantity of gluten also . You thus find that there arc three classes of substance obtainedstarch , gluten , and woody fibre . The learned Professor then referred to a Tabic stating the average Composition of the usually Cultivated Crops .

      Lecture On Agricultural Chemistry. Bv Pr...

      , gfc _S § _HW S S 3 S ° _o •* _M £ o o _? S -cL j ; si 11 si « _iieirt _«?!>¦? _ h _" o O '_ rt a - —— 7 ; - _u >> 3 S * = » is _i-i ta h P < _3 _jj _c-i >• ¦ : M _4 ~ _JFI ~ i _s ~ ' - _r s _t- 5 _tfs is £ = 5 Zo . _" . _« _" _: _5 _" i- |! _v 2 5 , 2 . _- I-. 5 ; . h- ? ,-wi 05- ! _- _? i ? _ih _Tildes -2 _« So < " _* _M _1-fS-lflrl < _» 3 ° _sv- < ? j _^ M " _^ £ ~ * ' - £ S s «* * A r . X 15 P _<» £ - j , - o £ o e _> _e k . c c ; _t-s i _? c co 1-5 _c cr : r a o O SOCiJ , n » ni 5 ! lnln « 51 C " . _o _» _£± * ' _% u . , .. . . . __ . .., _^ _. :-K . ' . ' ; . _' -1 _::::: ; ::: : _e ::::: ::::::: _::: _fc ::::: _! .:: ! : _; : _! :: ? i . ' . I : . . . : ' : : ¦ ' : : : " " _^ : : :, : ' ::. ' : : : : ti _© _1-iSiitfJlttf-. ' -. _* " »* < ; a ; 3 ' _' rje > S 5 { 3 ' :: _tHO g : V 2 03 ;» _f - » S _»^ a t « _o ' ¦ S 5 : B ~ iSt < o —r < - < n "U z _* " r '« - > £ 5 - % " 2 5 5 " 35 ' = 3 . 2

      Lecture On Agricultural Chemistry. Bv Pr...

      "Wheat , you will observe , contains 15 per cent , of husk or woody fibre , 55 per cent , of starch , ami from 10 to 13 per cent , of gluten . There ave several substances very analogous to gluten—for instance , the white of an egg , which is called albumen . Though it is an animal production , it also exists in plants ; and the water when clean , in which you work the dough , contains a _goi-tion of it . You will see that a plant contains starch , with gum and sugar ; gluten , with albumen , and husk or woody fibre . Such arc the constituents of plants . If you take starch or sugar , and put it into a retort , and apply heat to it , it will melt , and then blacken , whilst a vapour , or water , will come oft '; and by continuing tho process , you will get a considerable quantity of water , while what is left behind is charcoal . The same is the case with woody fibre , it is resolvable into two parts—charcoal and water .

      The common form in which carbon presents itself is' that of wood charcoal . It is light , porous , and black ; it is so fight as to float ou water , but plumbago and black lead , and the diamonds , are dense in their composition . Lamp black and soot arc kinds of it . It possesses some properties to which I will draw your attention . 1 st ,- —If you light a piece , if it is in a pure state , it leaves no ashes behind . It disperses in the atmosphere , where it forms carbonic acid . If reduced to powder , and mixed with impure water , or spread on tainted meat , it absorbs tho taint , and makes both water and meat fresh aud pure . It is useful in preserving game fresh that may be sent a distance . When in

      the soil , it absorbs certain substances which ave retained within its pores , and brought within reach of : plants . 3 rd , —It will absorb immense quantities of air , or other gaseous vapours , and become much heavier . There arc some kinds which will absorb greater quantities than others ; if put into ammonia it will absorb four or 500 times its own bulk . These properties have an important effect on the growth of plants . Reduce charcoal to a fine powder , and damp it , and sprinkle it over seeds , it will cause them to spring rapidly . If drilled iu with wheat , it will greatly increase the crop , as well as bring it forward more rapidly .

      Water , the other component part of starch , woody fibre , < £ c , when submitted to certain chemical operations , is separated into two gases—hydrogen and oxygen . Their properties I shall very ' briefly show

      you . If oil of vitrei ( sulphuric acid ) be mixed with water , and thou poured upon _ainc or iron filings , it immediately boils , and a gas generates , which collected over water will be fount ! to be hydrogen . It is invisible , and cannot be distinguished from common _^ air by appearance ov smell-, bnt chemists in bringing out its properties have a simple apparatus , which may be called the chemist ' s sixth sense—viz ., a lighted taper . When this is introduced into hydrogen gas a slight explosion takes place ( the result of a mixture ofthe hydrogen with the common atmospheric air ) , while the remaining hydrogen burns with a pale yellow flame , and the taper is extinguished . If a burner be placed in a vessel containing hydrogen gas , and light applied , the gas will burn for some time . It has an intense heat . If a hollow vessel be held over it the

      j light will become dim , and water will be formed . This is the water appearing again from which the hydrogen , by burning , has been separated , _llcsides these properties it possesses another : it is the lightest body j with which wc are acquainted , and is used for iiiihit-• ina ; balloons . , _: Water also contains another substance , oxygen it may be _produced by pouring water upon chloride ot postash , ami heating it ; or , if red oxide of mercury be heated alone , it cannot be distinguished Irom air , being destitute of colour , taste ov smell ; but if a I lighted taper be plunged into it , the flame is increased ' in size and brilliancy , and the taper burns away rapidly . Going into a chamber filled with hydrogen gas , we would immediately die ; but if it were filled with oxygen _gns _,- all- the functions of our nnture would be

      Lecture On Agricultural Chemistry. Bv Pr...

      stimulated and excited . The circulation goes on with _wSrfffwDiditv . We live , as it wer e . -too fast . F _^ . S ™ _ci aB _**» tfcftBB « : _th « it Miiee _» _saiy to animal life , and yet we cannot live long m it to Tto P S & b of plants , then , consist of carbon anu vatS and as water itself is formed o hydrogen and oSi , therefore plants arc composed o carbon and hvdiV " , _ind oxygen ; but we have _akopother constituent in gluten or albumen , which is composed of another kind of air-viz ., nitrogen . . If wc nut a small p iece , of phosphorus in a saucei , kindle it , place a glass over it , and fill the saucer with water , the light is gradually extinguished , nitrogen gas is formed .. By applying a taper , it is seen m what respect it differs fi : om the other gases . In nitrogen it idea ofthe

      does not burn at all . This gives an resources achemists has in these simple kinds of apparatus tocany on his investigations . A lighted taper serves him for a new sense , makes him acquainted with properties whose existence he would not otherwise even have suspected . You have now been informed that starch consists ol carbon , hydrogen , oxygen , anil that gluten consists of nitrogen . " These substances chemists call elementary or simple , because they cannot be separated into oilier substances . Tlicy , however , combine with OViC another . It will be desirable _Iwvc to explain the difference in chemical language between combination and mixture . Take quantities of charcoal and salt ; _petrc , reduced to powder , and mix them together ; if you pour water upon tlicm these substances are separated . The same takes place with sand and sawdust . These are mixtures , not combinations . Substances ave said to combine when tlusv form a new one , differing entirely in its properties from its

      originality . Carbon and charcoal , mixed with oxygen , and set on fire , disappear altogether , and forms a new kind of air called carbonic acid . Put a few pieces of chalk , marble , ov limestone , into a vessel with a little water , then pour a a little spirit of salt ( muriatic acid ) over them . All effervescence will ensuo , and au air will be produced which is invisible , but if a taper ha put into it , it goes out . This air is so heavy that it may be poured from one vessel to another , or on a lighted candle , which it will instantly extinguish . This is tho gas which given off by all fermented liquors , sueli as champagne , soda water , Ac . It is formed also by the respirations of animals . Every breath which is exhaled gives out a vorlion ol'it iu io the air ; and if we bum charcoal , wood , ov coal , we also produce carbonic acid . We thus find a small portion of itexisting in the atmosphere , as will be seen by the tabic shewing the ' composition of common air : —

      COJII'OSmOX Of THK Alll . Before Breathing After Breathing , _Nitrogen 79 . Id Id . lfi Oxygen 20 . SO 10 . Si to 12 Carbonic Acid 0 . 0-1 -1 . 00 to 3 100 100 By this table it will be seen that the air , before being inhaled , consists of nitrogen , oxygen , and cav--bonie acid . Jn 100 gaffons of _COMIUOlt ail * we find TO nitrogen , 20 oxygen , and an almost _unnpprceiablo quantity of carbonic acid . A change always takes place when air is exhaled . The . nitrogen remains the same , the oxygen is reduced from 20 to 16 , whilst vrohave now-1 gallons of carbonic acid . Allvegctablc substances emit carbonic acid in large quantities , when in course of decomposition . Nitrogen , which is formed by burning phosphorus , may be chemically combined with oxygen or hydrogen . When with oxygen , it f arms nhvic acid ov _aqua-fovtis . From this process we observe a cuvions principle in chemical combination—viz ., that the two harmless gases—nitrogen and hydrogen—form a corrosive and burning compound , such as aqua-fbrtis . This acid is formed naturally in _scils , manure heaps , < fcc , and is of great importance to the tariucr . It combines chemically with other substance . ' ; , sack as potash , soda , lime , & u . and h then called nilvatc of potash , nitrate of soda , nitrate of lime _& c . Nitrogen , combined will ; hydrogen , forms ammonia . This gas , I have no doubt , is familiar to every one of you , and , if any who do not already know it , would smell this _botiio of hartshorn , they would not SOOft forget it . Ammonia- is nhsuvbed hi large quantities by porous substances aud lluids , often five hundred times its bulk . Ammonia combines with acids . With carbonic acid it forms carbonate of ammoniathe _comuioiismelliiigsaHs of the shops . This carbonate is of importance lo farmoi's , and may be purchased at tho gas works in the shape of aiiiiiionituailliquor . Plants consist of three parts—tho roots , _stuius , branches and leaves . Like the brandies in tho aiv , tho roots ramify in the soil , bat instead of leaves they end iu minute fibre ;; . Cut through a . tree yon will find an inner pith , then wood , aud lastly , the bark , consisting of two parts—an outer and an inner . The wood is porous , through which the sap is earned ' between the roofs and the leaves : These capillaries extend to the end of the twig , and spread' oyer the leaf like veins . " The sup proceeds ' tVb ' ni the roots through the wood , extends over tiic . leaves , " and ' vetnnis through the inner bark . But where'dobs the sap come from ? From the soil . At the end of the root there arc a number of fibre ? , terminating in spoiigy ends , that draw in large quantities of . water , and convey it into the wood . The leaves nfso perform an important function—in order to' understand which , wc will refer lo carbonic acid . Tho substance of a tree is composed of carbon and water , which carbon , is one of the staple articles of food which a plant requires . Now , this is actually taken in by " tlie plant itself . The loaves ave covered all over with little mouths , " especially below , by _whiclilhcy absorb carbon , decomposing tho oxygen it ' contains . ' The roots supply them plentiful } ' vAth wafer , and the other staple articles of their food . You observe' how small a quantity of carbonic acid is contained in the atmosphere—only one gallon for twenty-five hundred ofaiv . awl the " reason why the air contains such a small quantity'is , if it were impregnated with larger quantities , it would become hurtful to animal Jif ' e . But , as thclargc Quantities of _Ihisgasnrerequired fo furnish carbon for the support of vegetable life ; and as the layer of the air which surrounds , a leaf only contains a very limited portion of it , we observe a beautiful plan pursued by nature , by which the air and leaves arc kept in continual motion by the breeze ; thws tvesh _snppiies of carbonic acid arc continually brought within the reach of the plant . Before the leaf is formed the young shoot performs the same function , so do the shoots of grain , grasses , _& c . Water forms one of the chief article ' s of food to plants , but it serves another function—it serves asa carrier , by which food is supplied to the plants . The " water which the roots drink iii is scarcely cvci \ puro , but is impregnated with other substances , iii solution ; coming into contact with the _^ roots , it enters ( and carries witn it the substances it has dissolved in'thc soil . It thus carries carbonic acid , potash , and various other organic substances from tho vegetable matter in the soil . There is a difference of opinion amongst chemists as to whether the greater portion of _tftcTorgaiiic food of plants is derived from ( he soil or from theair , but I incline to the latter opinion . The acids which contribute to the nourishment of plants are humic and ulmic acids . I f wc take a portion of vegetable soil , and put it into a bottle of hartshorn , and after shaking , allow it to stand over for a day or two , we will get a dark substance ; if to this wc add a quantity of muriatic acid ( spirit of salt ) , wc will have humic acid , and if hartshorn be used , it will become ulmic acid , These acids arc not easily _soluablc in water , but arc dissolvable in water containing ammonia , and exist in farm-yard liquids which run to waste . I have one observation to make as to the source from whence the nitrogen consumed by the plants is derived . Plants get their substance from the soil , hut principally from _., ammonia produced during the decomposition of animal and vegetable matter . It is also obtained ' partly from nitric acid . I beg the attention ' of agriculturists particularly to this point , because nitrogen is of importance in making the plant produce a good crop . It is by affording plants a sufficient quantity of nitrogen , as well as other food in the soil , that we _' mnst form the basis of a crop .

      Mahomkius Pii.Cri.Ms.—A Letter From Algi...

      Mahomkius Pii . cri . ms . —A letter from Algiers _epntains the following : — " I have just witnessed a ceremony very curious to European eyes—tho , return to their families of the caravan of pilgrims " to Mecca . Their approach had been announced" on tho previous day , aud the whole Arab \ _wnwlationvfcntr out to _^ mcct them , sonic on horseback , others on foot , with their wives and children . Some of them carried ilags of various colours , and many of them kept firing off their guns , without which there can bo no fete with this singular people . I joined the cortege , and , after proceeding for sonic time in tho midst of this picturesque group , I perceived the lookctWov travellers approaching . _ The whole party , with whom I was , _> _WlWt _^ _* i i _* _tivww _uiunuil _^ Hi _UilUi

      ,...... > . _; . » . _Q , w . - UO——' 0 , pilgrims , in the House of God have you seen the Prophet of the Most High V ' We have seen him , and wc left him at Mecca ; he there prays , fasts , performs his ablutions , and reads the holy books , ' was the reply . __ After which the party hastened to salute them , to kiss their garments , and to offer them hospitality . Happy was he who could entertain them , in order to draw down upon his tent the blessing of the Ail Powerful . Each ofthe pilgrims had brought from Mecca small chaplefs , which they distributed io their relations and friends , and also " phials filled witli the water of Birzomzcm , » fountain in the holy house . This water is kept to sprinkle over the bodies of the dead . The Arabs consider the journey tbe attended

      o with much danger , as the road is infested with robbers , and the expedition occupies from twelve to fifteen months , during which time they have innumerable hardships to undergo the endur ance of which they , however , of their obtaining pardon for Ix tiie _DHci-ixK of life the most med cine for . giving tone mach and acting atttw » health _ulapmcnt , is _7 rampt a family restorative which has sential benefits upon those who recourse to its _hcalth-vcstoring apply to themselves- _tWM speare— , "Though I look old , yet lam - ¦ " - "' ¦ ' _ivti _^

      , - Hope^Viu4nrnui"Tueans Theiriins^ • *...

      , - hope _^ _viU _4 _nrnui"Tueans theiriins _^ _** * - - _* i' _^\ _i _» WwS _^« _biMV _mmI-SAS'JSSE ) _S _motj | _Ste A _^| Vd _^ fi 5 5 o _^| _MlloMaltlvk _£ ? _# c _^ _lWd ' _the'lio ? t " es _^ H _tavllffortiiriatfily- _'Imi _^ ft ' _aitVmplingVdmvto _^/ av _^» _W SW * _P ' _# M _^ K * y ? _' _^'' ' ' _^) ? H strong » « _# V _*' ¦ ¦ ' > _^ fe _^ : . _« .... u , my _uiiuurth ej _^ _si _^/ V _^ _'Stp 4 _uietis ' oc casiw { aI \ _^ u ! . ! _$ _teb td'ihekoy } * _s _tgnr f ; _asfafe ] ntl ' e . _:-aiifi- ' CO if ' ' i _< o % H ) _uthkmo ? _t'feJH I o , tavl |( fortiiri 4 ifiIx * ; _Imi _^ A & _? ifi _tViWaWingtlidm _\ to > w / av _* _mAiimM i _^ W '' _^ % _^{ Wi _' _- J ! ' _^ " _^) fa * . _dt _^ _ggg /*

  • Citation
    • Northern Star (1837-1852), Aug. 9, 1845, page 7, in the Nineteenth-Century Serials Edition (2008; 2018) ncse-os.kdl.kcl.ac.uk/periodicals/ns/issues/ns3_09081845/page/7/