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Northern Star (1837-1852), 1st February 1851, Edition 2 of 3, Page 3

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      Fi February 1, 1851. T--H-B--#Oot-H^ ,.^

      Fi February 1 , 1851 . T--H-B-- # OOT-H ^ ,. ^

      &Om I}.

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      To Rome. S S I St«S I Stood On The Forum...

      TO ROME . s s I st « stood on the Forum's sacred earth , nnd g nd gazed on t " rains of Eoman birth , ilthoflgthovigut that each colama its silence broke , nnd th ' nd t hese words of fate the echoes woke ! toh R «> h R ome 1 thou panting heart of giant men , 'h'hon thou that once wert—and then did cease to be ; iDiong 4 ong dead—late risen—we welcome thee again , Mencelenceforth and ever more worthy , to be free—Metrofetropolia of the world's ruined paradise \ htoghtjright altar of Italian sacrifice 2 Ci [ hat Chat startled Venice from her lumbers deep , Mnd bind bade fair Florence cease to mourn and weep Sif Hotf Hope , and Truth , and Justice , can prevail , CirhoaKiou shalt be free ! Hail , all hail I

      rrhoaftiou latest born of that giant birth , BBegaBegat by Freedom from the groaning earth , LLast Last and greatest of the Intercessors ! £ Plea 4 ? leading to Heaven ' gainst Crown'd Transgressoi sora ! i ArraArrayed in "Wisdom ' s glorious mail , IThorThou didst cast aside the priestly cope , £ StrirStript every gaud—rent Error veil by veil , 1 'Wit ! 'With eye and heart of quenchless Hope ! ] FeaiFear not ! for Freemen gazing on their foe , 3 HorSIore mighty are—whilst slaves more feeble grow I 1 Res Rest thee I sublime—unawed—Mazziui ' s name ' "Wit "With thine , shall blazon yet the rolls of fame ! . Ant And Hope , and Truth , nnd Justice , -vet prevail OV O ' er Fraud and Wrong ! Hail , all bail ! Thomas Martd ? Wheeler .

      Ftewrtd*.

      ftewrtD * .

      Jimxe Girlhood Of Shakespeare's Heroines...

      JIMXe Girlhood of Shakespeare ' s Heroines . In a a Series of Fifteen Tales . By Alunr C Cowdes Clause . Tale H . T / te TlumJs 1 Daughter . Londoa : Smith and Son ; S Simpkia , Marshall , and Co . f 1 A FEW weeks ago we noticed the first tale of j fl ifoig series , Portia , the Heiress of Belmont , and c aowow we have before us The Thane ' s Daughter , \ tbethe preludes to Lady Macbeth . I Every reader of Shakespeare is , of coarse , i treVell-acqaainted with that character , at once i onone of the darkest , and most finely drawn of innsny that occur in the whole range of our hat and

      dridrama . The high-souled , unrelenting manerciless woman , with all lie finest sympathises of the woman ' s nature , dimmed and paparalysed by the promptings of a stern amhitiction lor power , with , scarcely a touch of tenderneness or affection as a sign of holy memories ^ dwelling within her , except when she cannot el ! elaythesleepingDuncan , becausehiswhitehairs reremind her of her father ; risking all , prepared toto sacrifice all , for the attainment of that power wTrfiich had Decome her soul ' s God , a subtle dflemon rather than a tender vroraan , till the p p rize is attained , and then , the object attained , t the feminine nature asserting itself , and the tj mind under the horror of a memory too fearful ttohe borne , becoming so diseased that no

      phy-£ sician can minister to it . In this play of Macbeth we may notice the 1 fine distinction between the natural action of i the mind of the man and the woman . Macbeth , as open to the promptings of ambition i as his Lady , is yet reluctant and vacillating , : nnwilling to consummate the crime over which lie is to step to a throne , while she is forward and resolute , and recklessly hastens on the catastrophe . The purpose acts with the greater power than upon the weaker , the woman ' s nature . But the King dead , mark the difference . The reaction from high strung excitement has , like the purposes , the greater

      power , too , over the feminine organisation . The man grows far more determined and resolute than ever , bat the woman sinks under the shock and becomes a wreck . The character , then , of which Mrs . Clarke had to lay the foundation in the Thane ' s Daughter is one naturally ambitious ; loving power for its own sake , and under that stimu lus , cruel and unscrupulous , such an one would not be needlessly sanguinary , but can suffer nothing to stand between herself and her object So that she would wade knee deep through blood if she thought it necessary ; but afterwards the physical rather than the mental \

      sensibilities of her sex arise and unnerve her . Let us see how beautifully Mrs . Clarke dep icts the process by which this character is formed by nature and education . To epitomise the story , the mother of Lady Macbeth is a noble , high-souled , impetuous woman—a ward of the Scottish Crown , married for reasons of State policy to Kenneth , the somewhat aged Thane of Moray . The Thane is a kind-hearted , weak , irresolute man , whom the wife despised for his tameness of spirit ; and "the dark lady of Moray'' longs for a son , whom she may train up to rule with a strong hand , and bear himself as becomes the descendant of a line of warriors . The son comes , but dies in its infancy , and the "dark lady"

      becomes still more imperious and morose . A daughter follows—the future Lady Macbeth . For some time the nurses feared to tell the mother that the new-born baby is not a boy : and when she hears it , in the bitterness of her disappointment , she says that , being a girl , the child were as well unborn . From that time the dark lady seldom leaves her chamber—her own proud heart , inch by inch , is killing her—her vexed spirit chafes within , and wears away the form that enshrines it ; and eo , by almost imperceptible degrees , she pines away to a shadow , and dies . Her death-scene will do something towards developing the texture of the story Mrs . Clarke has woven , and we extract it : —

      And there , week after week , and month after month , sat tbe dark lady , like a living statue , mute and immutable ; the only perceptible alteration in her attitude being a gradual sinking and collapsing of the frame , which brought her low . Lent , and drooping , like a withered plant . Each day , and from day to day , the change could scarcely be traced ; but when she first assumed that seat , and that fixed position , her body was erect , haughty , enercetic , and defiant ; before a twelvemonth had elapsed , tbe muscles were flaccid , the flesh was shrunk and wasted , tbe cheek was worn and hollow , the form was feeble , and the whole figure sat heaped together languidly , as if devoid of vitality .

      The eyes alone retained then ? spirit . These still were nangbty , energetic , defiant as ever . For as she sat there enwrapt in stony stillness , she would watch the shifting clouds , now careering in fleecy whiteness across the spring sether , now dappling lightly the summer blue , now hurrying athwart the murky grey , ot driving vildly along upon the storm blast ; but through aU the countless varieties of form , aud hue , and motion , in cloudland , those dark eyes flashed ever towards the sky , proud defiance , accusation , and resentment of hopes defeated . None the less a rebel to Heaven's will , for her voiceless inward chafing ; it seemed as if the unrest of her soul fought all the more fiercely for the marble quiescence of her body .

      One bright coon , even in that northern region , the sun shone with powerful rays , and cast , their broad light full into the chamber , where the dark lady sat , as usual dumb and motionless , surrounded by her silent women . Bethoc , ! the aged curse , held the child in her arms , as it struggled , and strained , and held out its brads towards the sunbeams , that shed their radiance in such bright alluring streams just within its reach . The crowing joy and glad shrill tones of the little one s'unded strangely in that silent room

      as the babe shouted its imperfect utterances of delight at the gay dancing iflotes it beheld in the sunbeams ; and still it leaped and bounded in the nurse ' s arms , and clutched at the brilliant atoms it Strove to grasp . , . The mother ' s attention was arrested ; and she ! ? azcd upon the infant ' 3 eagerness with a look of interest that her face had not worn for many a month . Then vexation succeeded to delight , as the phantom brightness still eluded pursuit . The baby hands clenched angrily , and struck and buffeted at the golden ravs they could not seize .

      The dark lady noted tbe rage that sprang from opposition with a keen satisfied glance . Frowns succeeded to smiles . Tears sparkled in tbe childish eyes . Short shrieks , and cries of baffled " ^ took the place of former joyful Growings ; istil ia at the window flew a small silver-winged ^ Qth , that took its place with the motes in the sunbeams , dancing , and floating , and playing up and down in the flood of light . This tangible object of interest and pursuit pacified the babe ; and all its clutchings and strivings 'ere renewed and concentrated upon this pretty buoyant spark of brightness . The old nurse drew back with ber charge . " Let it alone , my darling ; ie' 11 kttlthe bonny wse thing ; ye ' U crush the poor « tle beastie . "

      Jimxe Girlhood Of Shakespeare's Heroines...

      "Lei he * , so that „ ho goia u •¦• eiviaimed the dark lady abruptly . The unwonted sound of her lady ' s voice mad , Bethoc start . The child made one more plunge and by chance , caught the silvery moth . The next instant , the little fingers were unclosed to one of them stuck the mangled insect , crashed even by so slight a touch . But as the child held up the victim of her success in baby triumph , and as her eyes sparkled and glistened now with smiles as well as tears in token of joyful conquest , the mother exclaimed exultingly : — " Resolute in achievement I Firm of purpose even unto death 2 That should be a masculine spirit Bethoc , bring the little Amazon to me i " But as she uttered the words , a sharp sudden shiver passed over her frame , a spasm convulsed the f ice , and before the women could reach her , or i Bethoc could place her child within her arms , the dark lady sank back—a corpse .

      From this time , the little Graoch—for that was her name—was left to the care of her father , whose quiet , calm temper , too , shows in its sympathies to be actively affectionate or tender , and to the charge of her women attendants , who , of course , humoured her every whim , and she roamed about among the menat-arms as she liked . Following the love of power , which the surrounding circumstances so well fostered in her apt nature , she chose for her companion a grim man-at-arms , who , in strength and dexterity , exceeds all his fellows : —

      There was one man , she remarked , who was prculiarlv skilful in the handling of all sorts of weapons . ' He was a tall , stalwart fellow , singularly uncouth and ugly , with wild shaggy hair , and a ferocious look . His name was Grym . But he uniformly snrpassed all his companions in adroitness , bold daring , activitv , expertuess , and success in his feats of arms . So to this large , ungainly , ill-favoured , but triumphant giant , did the child take a strong fancy , and he became a sort of hero , a personification of conquest and success , a favourite rallying point for all her wishes and interest in the scene of contention . fr

      Grym , although rongh and coarse withal , and a daring soldier , had a tender heart ; and the child twined herself amid its chords with that peculiar fascination -which so often helongs to nature's ambition and fond of power . With Grym and Culen , a boyish page , she roams through the woods , practises archery , and sports in the castle ; and from this period of her girlhood we take a scene which shows how the baby , clutching the moth , had been developed into the girl . In the following extract , Grym , Culen , and the Thane ' s daughter , are on the platform of the Castle , the latter tossing a ball which the page has brought her : —

      For some time Gruoch continued to watch this pretty sight with interest ; then she stepped down from the stone seat , and began to toss her ball again . Suddenly it swerved iu its upward flight , and fell just beyond the wall . . , The page spraug to the spot he had just quitted , and exclaimed : — "I see it 2 It has lodged just below the nest ! Look ! On that frieze , that range of fretwork just beneath . " 'I see it 2 I see it ! " cried Gruoch , who had stepped up again by his side . " It looks quite near 2 What a pity we can't reach it ! 0 my beautiful ball !" "If I had but a ledge ever so small to set my foot upon , I could get it ; I know 1 could 2 " exclaimed Culen . " It ' s quite close , I could be over in a moment !" " Would you venture ? " said his young mistress , looking at Sim approvingly .

      " That I would 21 could get it in an instant , if I had but a spot to step my foot upon—ever such a point would do ! If the martlet ' s nest were not there , now , that would be quite room enough !" " But we can soon dislodge the nest , if that ' s all ! exclaimed Gruoch . " Here ' s one of Orym ' s long ahafta—that'll do exactly to poke it off with . " " Oh no ! " said the page hastily . " Are you afraid ? " said she , looking at him abruptly . ' No , not that ; but I don't like—I can't push the nest off , " said Culen . "Then I willl Give me the arrow ! " she exclaimed . Gruoch leaned over the edge ; fixed the point oi tbe arrow into the caked mud and earth which

      fastened the nest to tfee jutting point ; loosened it ; raised it ; and in another moment the martlet's home , with its unfledged tenants , spun whirling through the air , and was scattered to pieces , striking against tbe buttresses and rough-hewn walls . She stayed not to note its career , but turned to the page . " Sow , Culen I It was a brave offer I Have you courage ? I will hold your . hand firm 2 Give it me . " The page seized the beautiful little band that was held out to him , and taking the arrow in the other , that he might reach and secure the soft ball with it , he climbed over the edge of the outer wall , which was narrower there , on account of the deep recess that was made in its thickness , and formed the ledge on which they stood .

      But when be set his foot upon tbe jutting point which had lately held the nest , and then planted the other foot on the same spot , and after that , carefully stooped down , and stretched his arm out , SO as to stick the arrow into the ball , that he might raise it , and convey it to the top of tbe wall , —he had no sooner effected this , than he suddenly felt his head reel , and his eyes swim , at the unaccustomed height over which he hung suspended , merely sustained by that frail support . Be closed his eyes for an instant , and struggled to nerve himself boldly against the thought of the small point on which he stood , and to shut out tbe view of the depth beneath him . Gruoch felt the spasmodic twitch that these sensations communicated to the band she grasped . " Seep firm , Culen 2 Hold fast my hand ! I have yours tight ! " And the small hand never trembled , or wavered , but clutched close , like a vice .

      Her voice did bun goed ; her tone of resolution inspired him ; her steady grasp encouraged him ; and he was enabled to recall his dizzied senses . He looked up , and as he beheld that exquisite face leaning over towards him , anxiety and interest in each lineament , and wish for his success beaming in every feature , he flung up the ball from the point of the arrow , and strove to regain tbe top of the wall . But on raising his arm to the edge , he found be should not be able to obtain sufficient purchase , —

      even when he should gam the assistance of the ether band which was now held by Gruoch , —to enable him to draw himself up that height . The point upon which he stood afforded too little space , tbe weight of his body was too great , to allow of his climbing up again unassisted . The page cast one look of mute dismay towards his young mistress . She perceived his peril . " Keep a brave heart , Culen ! Hold mv hand steadily ! You are safe , fear not ! " she exclaimed . " Here , Grym ! Grym ! Come here ; make haste . ' Help , Grym , help ' . "

      The whole scene has occupied some time to relate ; but it had , in fact , passed so rapidly , that by no means a long time had elapsed since Grym had retreated to tbe other end of the platform to fetch the arrows . While occupied in collecting them , he had not perceived what had been going on at that distance ; but he now hastened to the spot , on hearing his young lady ' s call for assistance . He soon perceived the emergency ; and hardly giving utterance to his thought : —" What have these children been about ? " he leaned over the top of the wall , and seizing Culen's hand from Gruoch

      in his own herculean grip , he drew him carefully , but readily , from his p erilous position . The first impulse of the kind-hearted bowman was to hug the lad in his arms , and to inquire whether be was hurt ; the next was to shake him by the scurf of his neck , and "to ask him gruffly , " "What d ' ye mean by playing such fool ' s tricks , master page ! Don't yon see how you ' ve frightened my young lady , here ?" And as they both looked at Gruooh , they saw her turn pale ; she staggered forward , and would have fallen to the ground , had not Grym caught her in his arms .

      " Poor Iamb ! " he muttered , as he bore her gently to her own apartments to recover ; " She ' s as tender-hearted as she ' s beautiful . " "And she feels thus for me ! " whispered Culen ' s heart , as he stood rooted to the spot , his cheek flushed , and his chest heaving , at the thought . They were wrong , Neither the page nor the man-at-arms guessed that her swoon was tbe effect of mere physical sympathy ; a sickening sense oi danger past ; a reaction of the nerves , —braced for the moment by strength of will , with an object in view , —but suddenly relaxed from their tension , by tbe native weakness of a frame less powerful than her spirit .

      In this , the character of the future Lady Macbeth is more than typified . We see , in the above scene , in action , the qualities so powerfully influencing her after-life . The scattered bird ' s nest , with its callow young , which the page did not like to disturb—the manner in which , she prompts him to his dangerous feat—the courage she evinces in the face of danger , and the quivering of the over-strung nerves , when the excitement has passed away , lay bare to us her mixed nature , with its good and evil—its reckless daring , and its woman ' s instincts . lgg | g > ;^—2

      Jimxe Girlhood Of Shakespeare's Heroines...

      From this period we can but trace , briefly , the progress of the already formed character . She meets Macbeth , a young and rising warrior , with near claims to the throne , and loves him as much for his prospects of power and fame as for his personal qualities . A . glance of approbation from Macbeth thrown upon a highland maiden who forms part of her suite , wakes up the jealousy of her nature , aud she sends Doada in the face of a coming snow storm to her mountain home , so that Macbeth may see her no more , and Doada , her first victim , perishes of cold by the way .

      Grym , too , the faithful companion of her childhood , perishes too ia her service . He is sent after the betrothment of his lady to Macbeth , an errand of danger , to carry letters from Graach and her lover , and , attacked by foes upon his return , is brought home mortally wounded by a knight , who arrived just in time to save him from instant death at the hands of his assailants . But Grym bears the letter from Macbeth , and Gruoch takes it , blood-stained , from his breast , and even while Grym is dying , the sunshine of her new hopes , and the glow of her awakened love , dispel the passing shadow of his fate . The knight who brought back the wounded

      Grym is Cullen , the former page , who , prompted by love for his mistress and the infection of her bold spirit , left the castle to become a soldier , and returns a knight , to find that he has no place in her heart , no memory amid her affection , but for the knowledge of how the kni ght disguises himself to be again her jeryitor , so that he may be near her , and how at last he lays down bis life to shield her and her child , and how ill he is requited . We must refer our readers to the book itself , where , too , they will find how the lady wedded Macbeth , and spurred on his ambition and rejoiced in his triumph , down to the time when Shakespeare ' s drama opens , for Mrs . Clarke leaves the lady Macbeth at that point .

      ¦ When a letter is placed in ber bands by a trusty envoy from ber lord , wherein she reads words of wondrous import , that kindle into flame the smouldering fire of her thought . Her self-communing upon this perusal , begins in these words of apostrophe to her lord : — " Glamis thou art , and Cawdor ; and shalt be What thou art promis'd . " And for herself Mrs . Clark modestly says — " But that' our will became the servant to defect , ' the above should be ' prologue to the swelling act of the imperial theme . '" We hope we have done enough to recommend this little book to the hearts of the lovers of Shakspeare , and shall wait for Mrs . Clarke ' s next effort , in order to continue our notices of the series .

      The Britannia And Conway Tubular Bridges...

      The Britannia and Conway Tubular Bridges ; with General Inquiries on Beams and on the Properties of Materials used in Construction . By Edwin Clark , Eesident Engineer . London : "Weale . The Chester and Holyhead Eailway was designed to consolidate the " union" of Great Britain and Ireland ( and to pay a dividend to the shareholders ) by shortening ! , ' ;^ . tinte between London and Dublin : anoV'Jike the

      Union itself , it has had to contend . with a series of natural and man-made ^ difficulties . The mountains of "Wales , the river Conway , the ' Menai Straits , the owners of the land , the navigators of the water , opposed themselves to its construction ; while the government offices of Admiralty and Woods and Forests added to the troubles . Difficulties began from its leaving Chester , not to cease till the Menai was crossed , orrathertill the railway reached its final destination—Holyhead .

      A series of works of unrivalled magnitude characterises its whole length of eighty-four miles and a half . It emerges from Chester through a tunnel in the red sand-stone 405 yards in length ; a viaduct of forty-five arches leads to the bridge by which it crosses the Dee . Following the embanked channel of this river and the level shores of its estuary , it crosses the river Foryd by a pile and swing bridge , and continues its course along the shore through the Bhyddlan Marshes , and through the limestone promontory of Penmaen Rhos , by a tunnel 530 yards long , until stopped by the bold headlands of tbe Great and little Oram ' s Head . It now for tbe first time leaves the coast , and , passing through the narrow valley that separates these headlands from the mainland , crosses the river Conway beneath the

      castle-walls , by means of the tubular bridge . Passing through the town of Conway and under the walls by a tunnel ninety yards long , it again reaches the coast at the Conway Marshes , and continues its course along the shore through the greenstone and basaltic promontories of Penmaen Bach and Penmaen Mawr , the terminating spurs of the Snowdon range , b y tunnels 630 and 220 yards long respectively ; being carried for some distance after leaving Penmaen Mawr on a cast iron girder viaduct over-the beach . The sea-walls and defences , on the one hand , along this exposed coast , are all on a magnificant scale ; whilst , on the other , a timber gallery , similar to tbe avalanche galleries on the Alpine roads , protects the road line from the debris that rolls down from the lofty and almost overhanging precipices above it .

      The Ogwen river and valley are then crossed by a stone viaduct 246 yards in length ; and between this and the Britannia Bridge the lino passes through three ridges of hills perforated by tunnels , 440 , 920 , and 726 yards in length , through slate , greenstone , and primary sandstone ; the river Gegyn , with its beautiful valley , being crossed by a viaduct 132 yards long and fifty-seven feet high The line thence continues rising to the level of the

      Britannia Bridge , and entering Anglesey , passes across the Maldraeth Marsh , and through a tunnel , in slate , rock , and clay , 550 yards in length . To enter the island of Holyhead , use is made , to a certain extent , of the embankment of the Holyhead Road Commissioners , called " The Stanley Sands Embankment ; " for which the Company are required , as at Conway , to make a yearly payment to her Majesty ' s Commissioners of Woods and Forests . The amount iu this case is £ 106 .

      It is tbe object of the present volume to describe two of tbe most important works in this magnificent catalogue—the passage of the Conway River and of the Menai Straits , All the land difficulties could be overcome by money , or over-ridden by act of parliament . The water obstacles were not so manageable by mere outlay ; and the necessity for a free navigation , enforced by tho Admiralty , interposed obstacles beyond what Nature herself had placed upon the passage . The essential difficulty to be encountered—a bridge of enormous span without intermediate supportwas much the same at tho Menai Straits and the Conway Kiver . As the Menai Tubular

      Bridge , though the same in principle , and not very much more difficult to erect than the bridge across the Conway , more impresses the mind from the daringness of its conception , the dangerous-looking grandeur of its place , audits immense span . ithasexcitedmuch public attention . We shall therefore confine our notice to that structure ; endeavouring to present an idea of the difficulties encountered , the way in which they were overcome , some of the more striking facts elicited during the enterprise , and the gradual manner in which the conception grew in its author ' s mind , and was finally worked out by reasoning and experiment into a practical form .

      The Menai Strait , which separates the island of Anglesey from the mainland ot Wales , is about eleven miles and a half long , with a width of water-way varying from about 1 , 000 feet to three quarters of a mile . A tortuous course , extensive sandbanks at either end , and numerous rocks or groups of rocks , render the navigation difficult . This difficulty is further increased by a tidal peculiarity , that causes violent and baffling currents ; for the main tidal wave , as it advances northward up the Irish Channel , branches off into the Menai Straits over the sandbanks of Carnarvon Bay , and arrives in Beaumaris Bay at the other end of the Straits before the main tidal wave has completed the circuit of the island .

      As soon , however , as the main tidal wave enters Beaumaris Bay , it repels the current that has set in from Carnarvon , and the tide fl ows into the Straits in opposite directions . This meeting of the waters gradually retires before tbe Beaumaris wave , and arrives at the Britannia Bridge about twenty minutes before high water there ; so that tbe tide continues to flow , or the water to rise , twenty

      The Britannia And Conway Tubular Bridges...

      minutes after thTcurrent has changed its direc " tion . .... o * '• : * # # ; The shelter of tbe Straits is , however so important , and the saving of distance ia so considerable in avoiding the . journey of sixty miles round the unsneltered and dangerous coast of the island , that tne bulk of the coasting vessels , some of thorn of large tonnage , avail themselves of its advantages , as do also a great number of vessels employed in the carnage of slates from the Penrhyn , Llanbcrris , ana other slate quarries among the Carnarvon

      It was owing to . these peculiarities of the channel that the tubular principle was investigator ] , the present structure erected , and an extensive modification—If not anew featureintroduced into engineering and architectural contraction . When Telford , in 1826 , tbrewhis celebrated suspension-brid ge across the Menai Straits , he selected the narrowest part for the site . On the original survey of the line for the railway by the late Mr . Stephenson , in 1840 , it was proposed to use a portion of this suspensionbrid ge for the passage of the trains ; dividing them , and employing horsepower for the transit . The Woods and Forests nominall y consented to a partial use of the bridge , but with a clause which rendered their consent

      nugatory . Objections were also made by other parties to the proposed line . A deviation was accordingly ordered by the directors , and it was finally determined to cross at the Britannia Rock . This rock emerges as nearly as possible in the centre of the Straits ; it is 350 feet long , 120 broad , and rises eleven feet above low-water level . The idea of a suspension bridge was abandoned b y Mr . Stephenson , because he intended to cross by locomotives , and in that form of structure there is , he says in his evidence before the Committee of the House of Commons , " a difficulty iu keeping the platform steady : when the train went on to the Stockton and Darlington Vine , the rails rose up three feet in front of the engine ; they were unable to use it . "

      The first plan for crossing the Menai Straits was to erect a gigantic pier on the Britannia Rock across its entire width , nnd two other piers ( instead of the " usual abutments ) rising from low-water mark of spring-tide on either side of tho Strait . These three piers were to be fifty-five feet above spring-tide , and to be connected by two cast-iron arches ef 360 feet span , the centres of which were to be fifty feet above the piers and 105 feet above high water , As centering to support the arches while in the course of erection , would interfere with the navigation , and would , at the Menai Straits be objectionable , on account of the

      expense , Mr . Stephenson determined upon a modification of a plan of Sir Isarabard Brunei . " The erection of the arch was to be proceeded with by placing equal and corresponding voussoirs on opposite sides of the pier , at the same time tying them together by horizontal tie-bolts ; " a distinct idea of which principle the reader can form , by passing a skewer through a couple of apples , resting the skewer on the top of a book standing upright , and pressing the apples close to the volume . No sooner , however , was his plan of the bridges made known , than it was opposed by all the interests connected with the navigation of the Straits . Various hindrances and evils were

      predicted hut they were substantially resolved into the diminution of head-way and waterway , from the low springing of the arches , and the occupation of the Britannia Rock by the central pier . Right or wrong , the navigation interests triumphed . The entire width of the rock was not to be occupied ( the actual size of the tower is about sixty feet by fifty ) , and a clear headway 1 bf 100 feet along the whole span was peremptorily insisted on by the Admiralty . Thus , everything had to be begun again , and Mr . Stephenson was thrown back upon original principles , at least as far as regards extent and structure . In 1841 he had made

      a design for a wrbught-iron bridge of fifty feet span , for carrying a common road over the . river Lea , in which the conditions only admitted of a platform eighteen or twenty inches in thickness , This bridge was not erected in conformity with the design , but Mr . Stephenson now recurred to it ; rejecting various suggestions that were made to him , or rather fusing them all into his own plan . The object sought was a straight stiff road-way ,

      one end resting on the Welsh , the other on the Anglesey shore , and the middle , or middle ends , supported on a pier built on the Britannia Rock ; a petty example of which is seen daily in a plank-bridge over a brook . Iu practice , however , such a road-way could not be attained ; a solid body of that length would break by its own weight , every addition to its strength increasing , so to speak , its weakness ; it would vibrate more or less ; and if people would have trusted themselves on such an

      open platform , parliament would not have passed the bill—though they are as safe , probably , without as with the seeming protection , since none of the walls of bridge or viaduct , anywhere , could resist the weight of a train if it got off the rails . Sides of some kind , therefore , as well as a top , are absolutely ne cessaryi for they give stiffness and strength to a lighter bottom . Arches not being permitted ,

      the suspension bridge being rejected , and a solid beam being impossible , a tube whether in the form of a pipe or an oblong box became imperative . The combination of the self-supporting principle with suspension by chains was indeed pressed upon Mr . Stephenson , and he started with the idea of using them as part of the process of erection ; but they were finally discarded altogether . '

      About the practicability of the plan Mr . Stephenson seems never to have entertained a doubt , after the idea had once been formed in his mind . If sometimes he was appalled at the responsibility , " reflection satisfied" him " that the principles on which the idea was founded were nothing more than an extension of those daily in use in the profession of the engineer . " The directors of the company were equally , or even more confident than himself , aud they seem to have giveu hiin almost carte blanche : but the world

      was not so confiding . The Committee of the House of Commons was incredulity itself . When the . first general experiments , though really successful , became known , the scientific world were as sceptical : — Everybody had some doubts and fears to be overcome ; dismal warnings came in on all hands , suggesting every imaginableapprehensionj and Mr . Stephenson appeared at times disheartened when he withdrew , as was his daily custom , to give instructions on the subject , and to deliberate on the weighty difficulties that bad to be encountered in his undertaking . Very few are aware of the painful anxiety that falls to the lot of the engineer in circumstances of such deep responsibility ; he can be satisfied with no uncertainty or doubt—and what other foundations were possible ?

      Destruction by its own weight " wasprophesied by some of the most eminent mathematicians and greatest mechanics . With few exceptions , scientific men generally either remained neutral , or ominously shook their heads and hoped for the best . '' Even Mr . Edwin Clark himself , when he went down to superintend the commencement of the works , could not refrain from sending to his anxious chief a little of Job ' s comfort . He writes— " Itis a fearful span when looking at it on the spot . " But to return to the narrative . In the

      experiments instituted to test the practicability of the conception , three objects were to be kept in view , —strength ^ form , and proportion . The first series of experiments was made on circular tubes , the next on oval , tho third on rectangular . The tube having been formed , was supported at either end just as the bridge would be ; a perforation was made in the bottom , midway between the supports , and a suspension-link sustained by a cross-bar of wood inside the / tube upheld a frame-work charged with weights , continually increased till the tube gave .-way in some-part * The experiments

      The Britannia And Conway Tubular Bridges...

      upon , the tubes were thirty-four in number ' ; twelve of which were made . on circular tubes , seven on oval , and fifteen onrectangular . The result was to establish the fact that rectangular tubes were the strongest , and that tho top is the greatest source of strength . In tbe whole of these , " says Mr . Stephenson ' s report tojthe directors , " this remarkable and unexpected fact was brought to light , viz ., that in such tubes the power of wrought-iron to resist compression was much less than its power to resist tension , being exactly the reverse of that which holds with

      cast-iron : for example , m cast-iron beams fur sustaining weight , the proper form is to dispose of the greater portion of the material at the bottom side of the beam , whereas with wrought-iron , these experiments demonstrate , beyond any doubt , that the greater portion of tho material should be distributed on the upper side of the beam . We have arrived , therefore , at a fact having a most important bearing upon the construction of the tubes , viz ., that rigidity and strength aro best obtained by throwing the greatest thickness of material into the upper side .

      Tho experiments , though highly satisfactory in establishing the correctness of the princi ple , could not be considered conclusive as regarded the best mode of reducing it to practice . An exact model of the intended bridge was therefore constructed , and it was placed in a position similar to that of the intended bridge . Six different experiments were made upon it ; the fractures being repaired as they occurred , ( for which wrought-iron affords great facilities , ) and the weak points thus developed being of course strengthened . The third experiment , however , was decisive , since the model itself would have borne a loaded train .

      The result of the last experiment illustrated the importance of the pillars in the sides , as , with an addition of only two hundredweight to the weight of the tube , the top and bottom remained precisely the same as before , while breaking-weight was increased from 43 tons to nearly 56-5 tons , or more than ten times its own weight . This thin model , therefore waa capable of carrying 113 tons equally distributed over it ; and was of itself sufficient for railway traffic , as the weight of a line of locomotives upon it would only bo 75 tons .

      Thus a wrought-iron tubular brid ge , made of plates riveted together , was decided on ; and nothing now remained but the construction of the bridges , the floating of them from their place of manufacture on the shore to their place on the stone piers or towers , and raising them by means of hydraulic machinery from high-water mark to their position in the Menai Bridge , 100 feet above it . Ail these processes are described minutely in Mr . ' Clark ' s volumes , The account of the construction is curious , from the magnitude of the work and the machinery requisite to carry it on , as well as from the importance of thoroughly good workmanship in every part . It has not , however , the interest involved in the discovery of a new principle and tho gradual experiments

      by which that principle is tested and applied . Neither has the constructive part the breathless feeling attached to the struggle with , and controul of , the ocean the military precision of the preparations , and the instant obedience to one master will , that distinguish the floating and placing of the Tubular Bridges . Neither does it so fill the mind with wonder , as the raising suchimmense and unwield y massesintomidair by the simple process of forcing water into a cylinder , which raises a ram , which raises whatever is placed upon it . The floating and placing of the tubes was described in the newspapers , with ample minuteness . There are incidental passages , however , which are interesting in themselves , and also indicate the kind of interest attaching to the more popular sections of Mr . Clark ' shook : of them we will

      quote a few . Magnitude , one of the sources of the sublime , is the great feature of the undertaking . It is the magnitude of the span that caused the doubt of the practicability of the bridge ; it is the magnitude of its suspended height that impresses the mind of the spectator or reader , —for the principle is the same whether it were raised ten feet or a hundred . Everything was correspondingly great , down to tho men and materials . These are some of the statistics : —

      Three steam-engines were employed for raising tbe stones of the towers and abutments , with 2 ti travelling-cranes over different parts of the work , simultaneously engaged in transporting and setting them ; 2 , 177 cargoes of stone and other materials were discharged for the masonry alone . The stones were worked on the shore on either side of the Straits . From 500 to 600 men were constantly employed in the erection of the towors , besides 3 U 0 or 400 men occupied in the quarries , and in bringing the stones to the Straits .

      The whole quantity of timber employed in the scaffoldings for the masonry was 175 , 000 cubic feet , and for the construction of the land tubes 118 , 230 feet . The platforms on which the large tubes were constructed contained also 110 , 105 cubic feet ; the total quantity of timber employed as scaffolding for the whole bridge being thus 403 , 335 feet . * # * * Great precautions were taken to preserve tbe scaffolding from fire ; to which the number of redhot rivets constantly thrown about continually exposed the scaffolding for tho land-tubes , which on several occasions actually took fire . The means at command for extinguishing it were , however , so complete , that it was on all occasions immediately and easily subdued , or the consequences would have

      been moat serious , as the tubes themselves would inevitably have been destroyed , having no other support during their construction . To avoid such a disaster , two fire-engines were constantly on < the spot in won king order ; and tanks containing 8 , 00 ( 1 gallons of water were erected on the scaffoldings at either abutment , with cast-iron pipes leading to all parts of the scaffolding . Gangways were also constructed beneath the flooring ; and pliable hose , ready for attachment at any portion of the structure , afforded ready means of deluging any part of the platforms with water . The water was pumped into tho tanks from cisterns , which were supplied from land-springs in the neighbourhood , constantly flowing into them in wooden channels for that purpose .

      As everything was unprecedented , suspense , one of the most powerful sources of interest , is frequently at work . It was a trying operation to remove the scaffolding that supported the tubes duriug their construction , and the moment arrived to prove whether they would even bear their own wei ght . On the 16 th of January , the operation of cutting away the platform was commenced , and occupied ten days of intense anxiety . * * * After

      driving the wedges , and further removing the platform , as the tube descended and compressed the remainder of the timber , the difficulty of extracting it became greater and greater , and the timbers were cut out piecemeal . They became at length so compressed that great difficulty was experienced evt » n in this operation . A hole drilled with an augur was immediately filled up by the pressure , so that it was impossible to bore to any depth ; and great labour , was required to splinter away the timber in small fragments .

      The descent of the tube from its own weight was watched constantly with the greatest anxiety , as tho operation proceeded at length night and day . The great problem was now being solved . Many had predicted a deflection of two or three feet , and a great number of high authorities had affirmed that the tube could not support its own weight ; while others foretold the buckling of the top , distortion of the sides , and crushing of the extremities . Every phenomenon was therefore watched with intense interest as the tube descended inch by inch . Tho crashing of the timber , moreover , at , times , as it broke away under the strain , alarmed the men who were working beneath , and it was necessary to be

      continually present with them to keep them at their post , Mr . Stephenson , however , aw . iiied the result with confidence , though not unmingled with deep anxiety , as the results of the operations from day to dav were forwarded to him by tbe author . By the 24 th of January , the bulk of the platform was removed , and the tube had descended at the centre 6 J inches . The pressure on the remaining props was estimated then at about ten tons per foot , the longitudinal balks being nearly destroyed by tho weight . * * * All fears , how-25 th

      ever , were at an end on the , when the whole platform was cleared awny , and the tube took its own weight from end to end , with a deflection of 7 i inches , being one-eighth less than had been calculated upon . The first emotions on reflecting on this magnificent solution of the problem which had induced so much care and apprehension , were inexpressibh exciting i and though the novelty has ceased , no stranger can stand beneath this stupendous beam , tapered off , as it appears , by its vast perspective without feelings of intense astonishment ¦ " There still remained the test of what weight

      The Britannia And Conway Tubular Bridges...

      the tube would bear , besides its own aud tha trial was attended with a curious example of atmospheric influence . The testing of the tube was now rapidly pro * ceeded with . For this purpose rails were laid throughout the tube and platform . Ballast wag * gom uero tk ' en loaded with iron plates and drawn into the centre of tho tube . The first twenty tons increased tho deflection by one-eighth of an inch , and with fifty tons the deflexion , as read by lamplight , was 9 inches . This weight was left in all night , and the deflection in the morning was only 8 * inches . This was attributed , at the time , to the

      some error m rea-ling ; but this , and many Other anomalies in the diction , were afterwards fully accounted for by local changes of temperature . A gleam of sunshine on the top of the tube raised it , on one occasion nearly an inch in half an hour , with 200 tons at , the centre ; the top plates being expanded by increase of temperature , while tha lower plates remained constant from radiation to the water immediately beneath them . In a similar manner tho tube was drawn sidewise , to the extent of an iuob , from the sun shining on one side , and returned immediately as clouds passed over the sun ; being , in fact , a most delicate thermometer in constant motion , both literally and vertically .

      The effect of the wind had also excited greafe forebodings in most minds , excepting Mr Stephenson ' s ; but its influence seems to bfl less than that of the sun . In such an extension of the theory of the beams as was involved in the construction of these brid ges ' , it became imperative to inquire into every property of such structures , lest any phenomenon , hitherto unimportant in ordinary beams , should now-rapidly rise into importance , and increase in some high ratio of the magnitude : the effect ef isochronous vibration from wind or other causes , and the impact ot trains m rapid motion , were always foremost among the theoretical apparations that haunted the early history of the bridges .

      Mr . Stephenson attached , however , little importance to these considerations ; depending on the great weight of the structure itself , for obviating any danger from impact , and on the fitful nature of gusts of wmd , as affording no apprehension of continued isochronous motion . During the violent gales of February last-the heaviest that have occurred for many years—the tubes were but little affected , although one of them was resting at each end only on a pile of loose planks , and at " an elevation of 100 feet , and was neither connected , laterally nor longitudinally , with the neighbouring tubes , which must nearly quadruple its lateral strength : its lateral motion amounted , under these circumstances , to about H inches . The blow struct by the gale was not simultaneous throughout tha length of the tube , but impinged locally , and at

      unequal intervals , on all parts of the length which presented a broadside to the gale . It was imoracticable to pass along the top of the tube , excepb by clinging to tho winward edge ; and even in this position the fitful nature of the gusts was disagreeably perplexing . The gale was diverted from its horizontal course , and , descending obliquely into tho water below , ploughed it up in clouds of spray for some distance from the tube . The maximum vibration-did not occur during the greatest violence of the wind , but at the momentary lulls , when tbe tube , partially returning to its normal shape from its own elasticity , was again met by the succeeding wave . The tube , however , on no occasion attained any serious oscillation , but appeared to some extent permanently sustained in a state of lateral deflection , without time to oscillate in the opposite , direction * .

      The impact from the passage of an ordinary train , must , of course , be incomparable in effect with the blow of such a hurricane , on a surface of 13 , 000 square feet in one span . The expense of the preliminary experimenter was altogether £ 6 , 350 ; a " great cost , " Mr Clark terms it , but surely money well laid out . The total cost of the Conway Bridge was £ 145 , 000 ; that of the unfinished Britannia Bridge , as near as it could be ascertained at the time Mr . Clark was writing , waa about £ 600 , 000 .

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      by laying .. . ones brown in ^ £ XS ^ S ^^ Sar & . Al"l a . l ^ f | i ^^^ f . : f aJ'etherebM ^^*^ " 5 i 5 F | ' findeM * b ^^ p ? ji ^> to ; Weftk pem § fQmj 0 Jv ^ WN ^& are gojlte ^/ r ^ V ^ r ^ S'M- *) oy laying ™ "'™^" . , > rown in i 5 teffiSi 3 !? 0 ^^| red . Antiql £ ftei J ^ sT . f j iretherebo ^^*^ 5 iar ™ - e nndeM * b ^^ MR ^ to ; S ^ k tregcte / v ' - ^ MliM ^ Vj ^^^ ' ^ aBM

      Pusbyites Are Now Called " Brummagem Cat...

      Pusbyites are now called " Brummagem Catho * lies . " Proveubiaij Philosophy . — Drinking ale as medicine , and denouncing it as a beverage ! It is generally conceded , nbw-a-days , that ti makes the very best of belie metal . Mr . James having exhausted the language in giving titles to his numerous productions , is now publishing— " A story without a name . " Adding Insplt to Injury . — The tax-gatherer calling upon a blind person for the payment of the Window-Tax . —Punch . Pythagoras gate this excellent precept : — Choose always the way that seems the best , 'however rough it may be . Custom will render it easy and agreeable .

      "You look rather flat , " said the tea-ketlle to the pan-cake . "I would take that as an insult , " said the pan-cake , " but I am aware that you have been steaming it . " Too much reading and too little ' meditation produces the effects of a lamp inverted , which is extinguished by an excess of the very element that is meant to feed it . " Come here , my dear ; I want toask you aU about your sister . " "Now tell me truly , has she got a beau ?"— " No , its the jaundice she ' s got—the doctor says so . ' .

      Chewt is like a looking glass , which , when once sullied by an unwholesome breath , may be wiped clean again ; but if once it is cracked it is never to be repsired . An Empty Head . —Dawkter , dawkter , " said an exquisite the other day , "I want you to tell me what I can get to put in my head to make it right ?" — "It wants nothing but brains , " said the gentleman of functions . Is what two cases ate precisely the same means used for directly opposite purposes ? Bars are put on bank windows to keep thieves out , and on gaol windows to keep them in . To Preserve Life and Health . The theory imd practice of Dr . Oheyne was— " The slightest and least of meats and drinks a person can be tolerably easy under , is the shortest and most infallible means to pressrve life , health , and serenity . "

      A Kiss by Telegraph . —A man was found at Hanwell the other day , mounted on a ladder , with his lips pressed to the telegraph wires . He was kissing his wife in Reading " by ttbgruff . " It was afterwards found that he was a newly-married man . Expressive Ey es . — " Do you find my eyes expressive oi my feelings ? " said a sentimental lover to a lady he desired to please . " Oh , yes , I presume so , " said the lady ; "they snake me think of a codfish dying with the tooth-ache ' . "

      Population of America . — The census now taking in the United States exhibits an unparalleled increase of population and national prosperity . When concluded , it is expected to exhibit the former at 25 , 000 , 000 , though only 17 , 000 , 000 tea years back . Emigrants are now carried to New York , from this port , at the extraordinary low rate of £ 2 per head . After deducting the cost of provisions , Sec , the consignees of the vessel have only about 15 s . per head left to pay all the expenses of vessel , & c—Liverpool Standard .

      Polite , but Slow . —A stuttering Vermonter was asked the way to Waterbury . With great politeness he strove to say it was right ahead , but in vain . The more he tried the more he couldn't . At last , red in the face , and furious with unavailable exertion , he burst forth with , " trug-gug-go-long . ' darn ye ! you'll gig-gi-get there afore I can tell ye !" A boaster punished . —A wealthy , popular , and fastyoung gentleman onceboasted , that he could walk home with any one of the members of a certain division of the daughters of temperance from church . Accordingly , after service waa over on the Sabbath , he spruced up to a fair damsel , and with a polite bow

      tendered his arm . The young lady instinctively drew back as from a serpent , and exclaimed— " No , sir , I'll never put my arm through another jug-handle as long as I live !" Coals . —Of the three million tons and upwards of coals annually consumed in the Metropolis , about eleven-twelfths are supplied b y the collieries of Durham and Northumberland . The ships actually employed in bringing coals from the North are about 2 700 , 71 th eight men to a ship , and an average cargo of nearly 300 tons . In 1848 there were 2 717 shir * employed , which brought to London 12 209 caries amounting to 3 , 4 l 83 l 0 tons . ' C g '

      , ttS ? h sL * P ' ? r 0 berim Colle S e . '" ^ e United Sates , has lately awarded diplomas to eight young ladies , one coloured . The degree of A . B . was conferred upon eleven gentlemen and one lady ; ¦ ma tuut ot A . M . upon nine gentleman and one lady , inree gentlemen and two ladies completed the theological course ; and it is stated that one of tbe latter expects to "devote herself to pulpit-labours . " Hints to Finders of Antiquities . —Most antiquarian objects are coverfd with rust—articles of gold alone remain unchanged . Silver usually

      assumes a blackish tinge . Bronze and copper in peat bogs exhibit a red or blackisc tint ; while in the earth they become green . Iron is always very much corroded , except in peat bogs . Lead also is oxidised ; amber becomes like lesin ; and glass looks like mother-of-pearl in the earthB lecome black or hlways . best preserved b . ' . cleaned , as they S ill more should the them , which ignorant nesjs to gee if they in l

  • Citation
    • Northern Star (1837-1852), Feb. 1, 1851, page 3, in the Nineteenth-Century Serials Edition (2008; 2018) ncse-os.kdl.kcl.ac.uk/periodicals/ns/issues/ns2_01021851/page/3/