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    covered with some rocky mass . In accordance with this idea , while the animals of the carbonaceous and other early periods seem to have been reptiles or fish , that is , such as required little oxygen , the vegetation , as found , partly decayed , in our coalbeds , seems t o have been prodigiously luxuriant ; and it is said that ferna and other similar plants , which abound in coal , really do grow most luxuriantly in an atmosphere charged with carbonic acid , to a much greater degree than air is . ' Be this as it may , vegetation would purify such an atmosphere , till warm-blooded animals and man could live in it ; and then , the balance , once attained , would continue undisturbed as at the present day . In fact , air , taken from closed vessels , from the tombs of Egypt , 3000 years old , or the ruins of Herculaneum , 2000 years old , has been found as rich in oxygen as that of the present time .

    " Plants , then , obtain all their carbon , directly or indirectly , from the air : directly , by absorption through the leaves ; indirectly , through the absorption of water by the roots , this water having dissolved some carbonic acid in passing through the air , and more in filtering through the soil , in which carbonic acid is constantly formed by the decay of organic matter . But this solution of carbonic acid has another and very important function to perform , namely , to dissolve earthy and alkaline phosphates and carbonates , and thus to supply the plant with its mineral food . Although , therefore , part of the wood , &c , of a plant may be formed from the carbonic acid entering by the roots , yet as plants give out from the roots a certain amount of carbon in the form of excretions , we find that the whole

    increase in the weight of carbon in a growing plant is really derived from the air by the leaves . The soil becomes richer in carbon rather than poorer , and thus the carbon of all crops , as far as its weight is concerned , comes from the air . There is no evidence that mould or humus ever enters the plant as such ; but it is converted into carbonic acid , which enters by the roots and acts as a solvent for mineral salts . This , as we shall see , is the true reason why the presence of humus in the soil or in manure is advantageous . But direct experiments have proved , that plants can grow in perfection , and produce fertile seeds , in a soil destitute of humus or mould , provided it contain the necessary alkalies , phosphates , and other mineral salts , in a form adapted for entrance into the plant . In this case , the atmosphere easily supplies the whole of the carbon required , as well as the ammonia .

    " Let us now attend to the nitrogen of plants . This , as already stated , is supplied to wild plants entirely by the air , and , so far as we know , only in the form of ammonia . Some authors have held that nitric acid furnishes nitrogen to plants , and that this acid is formed in the air by thunder-storms ,-and carried down by the rain , and they point to the occurrence of nitric acid in springs in proof of this . Now , it is true that nitric acid is formed in thunder-storms , but in very minute quantity , whereas ammonia is , and must be , present in the air at all times . Indeed , there is reason to believe that the nitric acid of storms is produced by the oxidation of the ammonia of the air , as in nitrification , where ammonia is oxidised into nitric acid and water , N H -f O = N O , 3 H O ; so that , even if nitric acid did

    yield nitrogen to plants , that nitrogen would be derived from ammonia . This would account , too , for the small amount of nitric acid formed . For if it were produced by the action of electricity on the nitrogen and oxygen of the air , there seems to be no reason why it should not be formed in very large quantity ; while ammonia forms less than ^ o th of the air , perhaps much less . Nitric acid is only found in springs where decaying organic matter is near them , as in towns , and is formed from the ammonia produced in -their decay , by the same process as in nitrification . Besides , while we have no proof that plants decompose nitric acid , which it is certainly possible they may do , we know that many plants , such as tobacco and sunflower , actually produce nitric acid , or , at least , do not destroy that which enters thorn .

    " The origin of the ammonia in the air is obvious . It is produced from the decay and putrefaction of dead animals and vegetables , the whole of their nitrogen rising into the air as carbonate of ammonia . The combustion of coal also yields it , and it is said that some ammonia is given out in the respiration or transpiration of animals . It is stated , that if the air of a crowded theatre be allowed to escape by a narrow opening above , while fresh air enters below , the air passing out is pungent from ammonia ; but whether this be derived from the lungs or the skin is not known . But it is evident that the air must be continually receiving supplies of ammonia ; and us plants cannot grow without it , and fix large quantities of it , they must be continually removing it from the air . Here , then , is a balance between

    vegetable life and animal life , supported by plants on the one hand , and decay on the other , similar to that above explained of the carbonic acid and oxygen ; only the balance of nitrogen is single , while that of carbonic acid and oxygen is double . Ammonia , that is , it « nitrogen , is taken up by plants , by them supplied to herbivorous animals , and by these to carnivorous animals ; so that in thin case vegetation and uninml life act on tho same side . And the decay or putrefaction or combustion of both vegetables and animals sends tho whole of their nitrogen , in the form of ammonia , back to the atmosphere . This Imlmico is as perfect na the former , and both combined keep tho composition of the air perfectly uniform within certain limits . "

    SOMETHING VOK THE VEOETAIIIANS AND TEETOTALERS . " Of all food , perhaps good bread , made from the whole meal of wheat , oats , or rye , in this most economical , hi nee- nature supplies in it the due proportion of Banguigenous , respiratory , and mineral mutter . Hut since tho fibrine of Hour is identical wilh that of flesh , and fat corresponds to a certain amount of s ( arch , fiit meat ngnu'H < -los « 'ly with bread , and has u bettor proportion of ingredients than peiw , beans , or lentils . Hence the doed-ine of the vegetarians is founded on a mistaken assumption , that there is ii radical diflercnoe between meat and vegetables . It is certain that , the structure of man fif-K him for the use , though not the exclusive use , of animal food ; and even the vegetarians do not exclude milk , cheese and eggs , all of which lire nniinals ; the first about , equal to meat , in Niinguigenous value ; the two

    lost greatly exceeding it . A man may feed as fully , nay more fully , ami form more blood on ii vegetable diet , one of pe : i . s for example , than on one of very fat , incut ,. There is no known ( liflerencc in the power of forming blood , between flesh and bread , if the flesh bo mixed with sufficient , fut or Home starch ; and there is one reason why flesh should form part of man ' s food , besides that , derive ^ from tho struefure of his teeth and digestive organs , namely , that , since the chief use of food is to supply the waste of muscle , tho best substance for this must , be the muscle of animals . The great error in diet is not that of eating flesh , but of eating too much flesh , or too much sanguigenous mutter , whether animal or vegetable . And the only true principle of diet is to obtain the neeosHury amount of san ^ ui ^ enouK mu tter , of respiratory matter , and of mineral salts , no matter from what sources . In applying this rule to man , a mixed animal imd vegetable diet is obviously the best ; both us being in tho cud moat economical , because fleoh i » ncurcut of nil to what it

    has to supply ; and because , although fat can replace the starch of vegetables as a source of heat , the ashes of vegetables yield a more abundant supply of alkalies . The instinct of man agrees entirely with this view , and , like all one-sided and exclusive ideas , vegetarianism is inconsistent with nature . Still , it is certain that men can over-eat themselves more easily with animal than with vegetable food , and that they can live on vegetables alone . But they are not intended , by their structure to do so , and even on vegetables may easily live top high , especially if milk , cheese * and eggs be added . " The abuse of fermented liquors is hurtful in two ways ; first , by the peculiar stimulus which alcohol , unless much diluted , exerts on the nervous system in some way unknown ; and , secondly , by increasing the proportion of respiratory matter to

    sanguigenous far beyond the proper standard . By virtue of its strong attraction for oxygen , alcohol is first oxidised , while the food and tissues are imperfectl y oxidised , and disease is thus induced . If the food already contain a full or large proportion of starch or fat , every drop of alcohol is hurtful ; but when the food is too rich in sanguigenous matter , wine and beer are wholesome . In proof of the fact , that alcohol supplements the other respiratory food , it is observed that those who drink no wine consume far more bread , vegetables , rice , or puddings , than wine drinkers ; and the good health enjoyed by the natives of wine and beer coun - tries who use these liquors freely but not to excess , proves that alcohol is not essentially hurtful , when properly diluted , but acts as respiratory food . Those who take much fat , butter , or oil , cannot take wine , and feel no desire for it . "

    MAN A GEEAT GALVANIC BATTEBY . " The remarkable fact already noticed , of the existence in all parts of the body of an alkaline liquid , the blood , and an acid liquid , the juice of flesh , separated by a very thin membrane , and in contact with muscles and nerve , seems to have some relation to the fact now established of the existence of electric currents in the body , and particularly to those which occur when muscles contract . The animal body may be regarded as a galvanic engine for the production of mechanical force . This force is derived from the food , and with food has been derived , as we have seen ,

    from the solar rays . A working man , it has been calculated , produces in 24 hours an amount of heating or thermal effect equal to raising nearly 14 millions of lbs . to the height of one foot , heat being one form of mechanical effect . But , from causes connected with the range of temperature , he can only produce , in the form of actual work done , about as much mechanical effects as would raise 3 , 600 , 000 lbs . to the height of one foot , and that in 24 hours . Even this is a prodigious amount of force , and whether we regard it as derived from heat , electricity , or chemical action , it is ultimately derived from the luminous solar rays , on which vegetation depends . "

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    BOOKS ON OUR TABLE . JLirby ' s JBridgwater Treatise , on the Power , Wisdom , and Goodness God , as manifested in the Creation of Animals , and in their History , Habit , and Instincts . JS " Edition , with Notes by Thomas Rymer Jones , F . E . S . In 2 vols . ( JBohn ' s Scientific Library . ) H . Gr . Bohn . Deeply as we disapprove of the religious portions of works on " Natural Theology /' and dangerous as we have shown them to be , not only to a proper religious tone of thought , but also to orthodoxy , there is such an endless charm in natural history that we cannot but welcome any works which treat of it with knowledge . Professor Kymer Jones has edited Kirby ' s celebrated JBridgwater Treatise , which Mr . Bohn here offers at a very moderate price , and we commend to all readers with a caution against the argument current through its pages . The History oftJie Painters of All Nations . By M . Charles Blanc . Edited by Digbv Wyatt . Part I . John Cassel . Fob the present we content ourselves with announcing the publication of this ambitious work , reserving criticism for the time when more ample materials are before us . It is a translation of the work now in course of publication in Paris , written by Charles Blanc , the brother of Louis Blanc . The English version is executed by Mr . Peter Berlyn , and the whole is under the superintendence of Mr . Digby Wyatt . Each part is to be complete in itself , containing a memoir of the painter , and engravings of his most celebrated works . Judging from the specimen before us—Murillo—the design seems equal to the exigencies of the public . It will form a cheap and very handsome work .

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    712 THE LEADER . CSATOftftAv ,

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    THE DISCIPLINE OF ART . Letter III . —To A A . Do you know a statue called The Lizard Catcher f It is that of a youth * who , if he were an Englishman , might be eighteen or nineteen , but who , being a Greek , is probably fifteen or sixteen . He is standing with his weight resting carelessly on one leg , his left arm resting against the trunk of a tree above his head , his right hand gently open , prepared to catch a lizard that is running up the trunk . His figure is slight , yet powerfully made ; large in the chest , small in the hips , rounded mid muscular , perfectly compacted at the joints . His countenance ; is plucid , yet animated , passing from the sweetness of the child to the foreshadowed energy of the man . His mouth i . s gently smiling , while his eyes look steadily under sweeping eyebrow ' s ; his abundant hair waving into many curls , forms a natural garland , and chequers * with rose-shaped shades the simple outlines of his lace . Take him as he stands , and you find in him a perfect type of manhood in the bud , with all the faculties of humanity in their completest youth . A man with so ample a ehcHt , and legs so beautifully fitted to the trunk and to themselves , could evidently run like u deer . So generous and so graceful a face could only be , where the nature was genial , affectionate , and gruceful . Tho girl whom he loved would be tho envy of her

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    [ AitT . XVI ., on " Cornte ' s Positive Philosophy , " next week . ' ]

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    We should do our utmost to encourage the Beautiful , for the Useful encourage itself . — Qoetuk .

• Citation
  • Leader (1850-1860), July 24, 1852, page 712, in the Nineteenth-Century Serials Edition (2008; 2018) ncse-os.kdl.kcl.ac.uk/periodicals/l/issues/vm2-ncseproduct1944/page/20/