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    978 THE LEADER [Saturday,

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    Turkey—Its History Ani> Progress. From T...

    epens for merit and personal qualifications , to produce that series of remarkable men of every description with whom the Ottoman history abounds—on the other , by depriving tlie state vessel of the necessary balance , it g-ave it those rough and frequent shocks , whose violence menaced more than once to overwhelm it . In fact , as the power was based on nothing fixed or solid beyond itself , whenever its own strength failed it , or the traditionary feeling gave way , it knew not whither to turn . On every change ia the Government the whole edifice began to > totter . There was only one thing among those forming- the ancient system of Turkey , which could have furnished the idea of a nobility like that which the middle ages produced in Europe ; those -were the Governors and Dereb & ys who had succeeded , in proportion as the empire grevr -weaker , in usurping the hereditary government of their Pachaliks or tenures , and whom Sultan Mahmud in a great measure destroyed . Even at the present day , the remnants of this feudality try to incite insurrections in certain distant provinces , such as Bosnia and Lebanon , and carry on a desperate contest against the reforms of the Port * .

    Thus , then , the old divisioa into clergy , nobility , and the third estate , - which is still dn vogue through a great portion of Europe , cannot be applied , either to Turkey past or present . Politically and civilly , Turkish society is an unity , and admits neither ranks nor distinctions beyond the official hierarchy of the functionaries of state . In fact , these , as in Russia , form an immense body , -whose degrees , as well as the prerogatives attached to them , have been regulated with the most minute care by the canons of the Ottoman Sultans , those rigid observers of ceremonial and etiquette . These ranks , each of which corresponds with a step in the army , were thus fixed in ithe Official Annual for the year 1266 of the Hegira ( 1850 ) . Independently of the official titles attached , either to their person or their office , etiquette has established for each class of functionaries , from the Vizir down to the lowest employe of the Kalemie , certain formulas , employed either in addressing or ^ writing to them , which vary in the most extraordinary manner , but to which the Ottoman ceremonial attaches the utmost importance . These formulas , however , have Ijeconie greatly simplified during the reign of the last Sultan , with reference to the great officers of the crown , and the other * dignitaries of the empire .

    As to the latter , although distinguished from the mass of the population by the title of ' ridjal , they cannot be regarded as forming an aristocracy in the state , as they do not possess any hereditary , or , indeed , other privileges . More than this , whatever may be the authority they may exercise , there is not an Osmanli who lives on Ms property , or by the fruits of Ms labour ,, that does not affect towards them a species ¦ of disdain , that of the free man towards the slave ; slave not by his birth , or his evil fortune ; , for then lie might he pitied , hut through his free will , and a desire to satisfy Ms ambition . In fact , the time is not very remote , when the fusion of the law which placed all tthe functionaries of the empire in absolute dependence on the Sultan was in full force ,

    And when the Sultan , who did not dare to injure the meanest of his subjects , could - with impunity strangle or deciapitate the first dignitaries of the empire . By the ancient laws of the empire , the officers of the seraglio were the slaves of the Sultan , ; and t <> whatever rank they attained they were still considered to exist in that rela-Tfcion ; to be incapable of acquiring personal property ; and their wives , children , and fortune , as well as themselves , were at all times at the disposal of their master . Though the strict interpretation of this relative connexion was ho longer now prized , and men undertook office who were not and never had been slaves , yet the origin of 4 he notion still continued to operate : the functionary was put to death the moment he displeased Ms master , and his property -was taken possession of by the Sultan , as if the man was still his bondman .

    Tins state of things was the most effective of all in sapping the foundations of the Turkish empire . By ranking all those who were invested with a Government office with slaves , it furnished them in reality with the vices of slaves , perndiousness , baseness , covetonsness , and love of money . It was not surprising that the governors of provinces . neglected no means of plundering the people , when they were obliged to purchase that right dearly ; when they knew that they could not maintain themselves in the place , or occupy others without making just pecuniary sacrifices ; when , in a word , the sovereign sold all the eminent places , * and , after his example , the ministers and the men who disposed of any employment only gave it to the highest bidder . Through a very ancient custom which mistrust doubtlessly introduced , every important place was granted only for a year ; a now firman was necessary for a person

    vto be retained in it . The pachas , above all , whose extensive power afforded , the means -of securing' themselves from the sovereign authority , were regularly changed every year , and tho Sultan seldom deviated from the custom , when he had it in his power ; ¦ but the pacha , on his side , knowing that gold could absolve a man from tho worst ¦ crimes , hastened , to amass it , and if to his criminal ambition ho found courage , boldness , and talorxta , he obtained , with tho three tails , an eminent pachalik . He then ^ endeavoured to maintain himself in liia post by preventing , on the ono hand , the complaints respecting his conduct reaching the throne , and , on the other , by performing scrupulously tho engagements he had contracted toward the imperial treasury . After a while the vassal would grow bold , and tho Sultan suspicious , and the ond of tho turbulent pacha would bo his death by the bowstring , and tho production of tho imperial firman , which nil tho spectators in turn kissed with respect , and placed on

    their heads in token of submission , Tims , then , if wo desire to find tho pure typo of the Oamanli , wo must seek him ¦ wi thout the official regions in tho social classes , who live isolated from the Government . Those again may bo divided into two categories : the artisans and the proprietary . Tho artisans are divided into guilds , under tho nanie of Eanafa , each having its kiaiya ( inspector ) , and placed undor tho jurisdiction of tho Staniboul Effondi ; those { guilds aro very numerous . An historical document quoted by Von Hammer , on tho occasion of tho fetes given by Sultan- Mahmud III ., nt tho circumcision of his Son in 1582 , contains a list of ono hundred find forty-eight guilds which took part in the procession . Tho aamo writer , who lias takon Ms description of the corporations from tho elaborate work of tbo celebrated Turkish traveller and historian Evlin , observes that tho establishment of ' guilds diitos from tho most flourishing epoch of tho Bagdhad Chnlifos . Tho example of Christian religious fraternities and monkish congregations suggested the idea of these associations to tho Commanders of tho faithful According to popular belief , however , the flntfc Emiaf was instituted by Muhammad and Mb immedinto successors . I $ ach company or craft rovcrenced and still acknowledges a patron aalnfc , as in tho cano with some guilds in Europe .

    Saddlem , jewellery engravers , und bookHollora aro placed in tho first rank among tlioso corporations whoso business is confined to tho bozestnna and toharchta , whom tlioy each oeoupy a nopnrato quarter . Tho bcyostans originally consisted of isolated building * , oaoh with ( bur gftton , ami opening nearly at cardinal points . Thetto gates ¦ were , and still nro , designated after tlio principal trados carried on in booths immediately around or hummlii their roN |>« x ! tivo pore . hos . lly dogroca , new nhopa , alloys , and auiclomires clustered around tho original riapftta , until tho whole woro onolosud witlitn walls , arched , roofed , and provided with gates , of which thero aro twelve largo , und xibout twenty small . They aro closed entirely upon Fridays , and aliut during tho ¦ remainder of tho wcolc at mid-day . TUo outside , or general tcharchi , it ) ftccoaaiblo every day ia tho week , from sunrise 4 o aunootg although mout dealers withdraw « t tho hour of afternoon » r « yor , which

    takes place , at all seasons of the year , between mid-day and sunset . The general inclosure , called bazaar , by Perotes and strangers , is termed teharchi bv the Turks With the exception of the two bezestans , the bazaars are not surmounted by domes * the distinctive ornament of almost all public edifices . ' The boatmen nearly all come from the provinces of the interior , and chiefly from Anatolia , to seek their fortune in Constantinople . Their object being to save all tliev can , they generally club together , and five or six hire , for from ' fifteen to ' twenty piastres a month , a large room , in which « ach has his carpet and cushions . They give a similar sum to some old man ( generally a relative of one of the members ) to take caTe of the -room and prepare supper . This veteran is rather councillor or jud « -c than servant , and as age is nowhere so respected as in the East , he passes his lifo very happily and serenely . All his expenses are paid , and the young men who employ him furnish him the assistance he might expect from relations or servants . At the end of five or six years tho Kaikji has generally amassed what lie considers a sufficient sum , with which to return to Ms native comntrv .

    The whole body are subject to severe police and corporate regulations . Transgressions are punished by fine , confiscation , or corporal punishment . The officers consist of the Kaikji Bashy and two Vekils , one for the city and one for the suburbs and of several inspectors , overseers , and foremen . Boys entering as apprentices must work until they receive a certificate for fitness from the foreman and chief civil fnnctionary of their quarter . Each Kaikji is compelled to register his name iu the books of the Kaikji Bashy , and pay a monthly tax of eight piastres if married , and sixteen if single , , for a licence . As there are no liberal professions in Turkey , except the public functions , the class of proprietors is the only one which represents our middle classes , and this is gradually dying a-way . The Turkish gentleman who lives on his property either resides on

    his farm in the country or ma town house . In the first , lie manages his estate , attends to his house , and exercises hospitality ; in the other , the ' education of his children , prayers , alms , and the enjoyment of the kef employs all his time . But he unites with this native indolenoe a reserve , a dignity , a nobility of feeling , an affection for his children , kindness to his servants and slaves , and a delicacy in his treatment of the harem , which are truly admirable . He is proud , though without the slightest admixture of vanity , more especially of his religion . He believes that the empire is hurriedly approaching to its end , and if he be rich , lie desires that he may be buried in Asia , in the great cemetery of Scutari , in order that the presence of the infidels may not sully the asylum where his bones rest , whenever the Turks have lost Staniboul He believes in the impossibility of any regeneration of Turkey , and is consequently , as far as his apathy will permit him , a bigoted opponent of reform .

    This spirit , however , is gradually dying out in the face of progressive reform ; but whether the feelings of which it was the expression are not based on . truth , it is a difficult task to decide ^ Is it immutably decreed that Turkey must fall , in spite of all the ameliorations of every description wlick have taken place during the last few years ? or will she eventually emerge from her difficulties , and reassurae that position which her past history and her present exertions on . the path of reform justify her in claiming ?

    THE SLAVERY LA . WS . Eventually commerce with foreign nations introduced a new class of slaves , whose sale was considered perfectly legal . Some were derived from Abyssinia , and the negro countries bordering the states of Barbary : the others came from Georgia and Armenia , and were renowned for their beauty and purity of race . In addition to these ^ all children bom of slaves , white or black ,, whose parents have not been enfranchised , or who are the issue of female slaves by unknown fathers , or by men not entitled to manumit tho mothers , that is by any other man than the proprietor , are unconditional slaves ; In the event , also , of the female being the joint property of husband and wife , or mother and son , the power of manumission does not rest with the man alone : thus , unless the mother or wife consent , the child is regarded as a slave . But when the child ' s father is a freeman , having the right t o liberate , or when he has received permission from , his co-proprietor to hold commerce with the slave , then the child ' s freedom is absolute .

    The number of slaves is gradually diminishing in Turkey . In the first place war provides none . As for those imported from foreign countries , they annually become rarer , either in consequence of a change in the manners of tho Turks , or through ' th « obstacles the government raises against the sale . Thus , for instance , an Imperial decree , issued at the close of 1847 , ordered the slave-market to be closed , and . this disgraceful traffic , which was formerly openly carried on , has now become a clandestine operation , only enjoying the tolerance of the law , and which is gradually dying awny . Tho . number of slaves entered on the lists of the Stamboul-EnVmdi does not exceed 52 , 000 , of whom 47 , 000 are female slaves , white and black , which gives an average of 12 pur cent , on tho population , aft <; r deducting the non-Mussulman subjeeu ami strangers .

    lho average price of stronpc newly-Imported slaves is as low as 1300 piaalrcs , and never exceeds 2500 . Tho ordinary price for second-hand slaves , clean , honllhy , and well-instructed , averages from 250 O to 8000 , and never exceeds 5000 . ' White women , when young and without defects , average from 10 , 000 to 15 , 000 piastres . The maximum was 45 , 000 ; but this is rare , and only in cases of gront beauty und extraordinary accomplishments . Slaves brought from Egypt—that is , the blacks of Scnnaar and the higher regions — avo not so valued as those imported vid Tripoli . The duties of slaves are all within doors , and domestic . Tho master docs not demand inoro from them than from the other servants of tho house , with whom they aro mixed up . Attached to his person , or to that of his wives , th <* y usually live in tho solamlok or tho harem , and enjoy tho same sedentary nnd lazy lifts as their patrons . As for fho eunuchs , to wlioao charge the harom was formerly cut rusted , they no-w only oxist in tho Royal Palacewhore they ar « divided into four cliiunljora

    , ( odars ) , under the nupremo commnnrl of tho Kislar Aghasai , or Chief of tho Mmdens . This oiiicor formerly ranked very high , nnd in his quality of inspector and administrator of the holy oities , took procodenco after tho Grand Vizir , Shdkh ul Islam , and Capudan Pacha , Ho wad chiof comptroller of tho Imperial household , donuiiiis , nnd vakufa : tho confidential counsellor of the Sultan , tho kcopor of his purso , and iihnost of his person . All men , from the Grand Vizir to tho youngont elork at ( lie J »<» rt <» courted and feared him . In short , ho may bo said to have governed tho empire . Thii » , upon many occasions of revolt , tho diweontuntod JaniHsarlos directed their principal fury against these inert . Whom Muhammad II . freed himsolf from tho thraldom of tho . TamaaarioH , ho aim ) whook oil' tho trammels of theflG functional-ion . The Uuyuk Ayha was stripped of all political power , and although ho was ponuittfd d > n'tnin tho nominal innpocitorrihip of tho holy city und domains , ho wan shorn of ( ill roil i » - iluoneo , and limited to tho more Hupuriiitondanco of tho tmrom .

    liy tho code which rofrulnLOB tho right of mantorn over hIrvos , il . will bo mM . 'ii thai tho condition of wluvory in Turkey in far nuporior to thnt which obtained in iinoifiit Homu . The Mussulman law racoonIhou in the slnvo a human boiiif * , inti'rpom ' n at iwh moment of his uxlntonco to prouorvo and dofend him , nnd considering l » i" » rnthor a * belonging to a rtpeciort than aa private property , roaurvort for him tho power < if lvcovur-Ing hio liberty by Hovorul mot . hodn , cither by furnishing him mounn of pun ; li «« ii > h himuolf , by his own labour , or by tmggertthig to hln patron ovory imaginable mull' *" of onfranolUMJinoiJt . 1 « Ihta way It hay obUbllshud different condition *) ul' nlavory which aro ho nmny atopw loading from bo » idntco to freedom .

    978 The Leader [Saturday,

    978 THE LEADER [ Saturday ,

• Citation
  • Leader (1850-1860), Oct. 14, 1854, page 18, in the Nineteenth-Century Serials Edition (2008; 2018) ncse-os.kdl.kcl.ac.uk/periodicals/l/issues/cld_14101854/page/18/